<p>Achziv is an ancient site on the Mediterranean coast of northern Israel, between the border with Lebanon and the city of Acre - 15 kilometers north of Acre, within the municipal area of Nahariya. Today it is an Israeli national park. The legally disputed "micronation" of "Akhzivland" is located in the immediate vicinity.</p><br>
<p>Excavations have unearthed a fortified Canaanite city of the second millennium BCE. The Phoenician town of the first millennium BCE is known both from the Hebrew Bible and Assyrian sources. Phoenician Achzib went through ups and downs during the Persian and Hellenistic periods. In Roman times Acdippa was a road station. The Bordeaux Pilgrim mentions it in 333-334 CE still as a road station; Jewish sources of the Byzantine period call it Kheziv and Gesiv. There is no information about settlement at the site for the Early Muslim period. The Crusaders built a new village with a castle. During the Mamluk and Ottoman periods a modest village occupied the old tell (archaeological mound). This village was depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. The only permanent resident of Achziv is an Israeli who has been welcoming visitors to a small stretch of beach where he has lived since 1975.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>The first fortified settlement found by archaeologists is a large Canaanite port city from the Middle Bronze Age IIB (1800-1550 BCE). The massive ramparts, some 4.5 m (15 ft) high, protected the city proper and a large area of port facilities. To the north and south the city extended to the two nearby rivers, which the Canaanite engineers connected by a fosse, thus transforming Achzib into an island. A substantial destruction level from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age proves that even these fortifications were eventually not sufficient.</p><br>
<h3>Iron Age</h3><br>
<p>According to the Hebrew Bible, the area including the Phoenician city of Achzib was assigned to the tribe of Asher, but the Asherites did not manage to conquer it from the Phoenicians:</p><br>
<p>King David added the city into his Kingdom, but King Solomon returned it to Hiram I as part of the famous pact.</p><br>
<p>During the invasions of Sennacherib the Assyrians conquered the city.</p><br>
<h3>Classic era</h3><br>
<h4>Hellenistic period</h4><br>
<p>During the reign of the Seleucids the border was established at Rosh HaNikra, just north to Achziv, making it a border city which they called Ekdippa (Έκδιππα in Ancient Greek) and put it under the control of Acre.</p><br>
<h4>Roman and Byzantine periods</h4><br>
<p>A maritime city named Cziv, nine miles (14 km) north of Acre, is mentioned by Josephus Flavius and later by Eusebius.</p><br>
<p>Achziv (Cheziv) is mentioned in Jewish rabbinic writings, for example Midrash Vayikra Rabba 37:4. Additionally, Achziv is mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud, and by the relating Middle Age commentators, concerning the location of Achziv in regards to historical borders of Israel.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<h4>Crusader period</h4><br>
<p>During the Crusader period, the site was known as Casale Umberti, or Casal Humberti, after Hubert of Pacy which held the casale and is documented in 1108. European farmers settled there in 1153 under Baldwin III. In 1232 it was the site of the Battle of Casal Imbert between German and French Crusaders as part of the War of the Lombards.</p><br>
<h4>Mamluk period</h4><br>
<p>The Arab village of Az-Zeeb was established during the Mamluk period, the houses erected using the stones of the Crusader castle.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>The town existed during Ottoman rule in the region.</p><br>
<h3>British Mandate</h3><br>
<p>In 1946, The Jewish Resistance Movement attempted to blow up the railroad bridge over the creek at Achziv in an operation known as Night of the Bridges. A monument to the 14 soldiers killed there was erected on the site. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War the Arab villagers of az-Zib fled to Lebanon.</p><br>
<h3>Israel</h3><br>
<p>Achziv became an Israeli national park.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Remnants of ancient Achziv, now known as Tel Achziv, are located on a sandstone mound between two streams, Kziv on the north and Shaal on the south, close to the border with Lebanon.</p><br>
<p>An ancient port was located on the coast, and another secondary port is located 700 m to the south.</p><br>
<p>Archeological excavations have revealed that a walled city existed at the location from the Middle Bronze period. History of Achziv goes back to the Chalcolithic period (4500-3200 BC).</p><br>
<p>Antipatris  was a city built during the first century BC by Herod the Great, who named it in honour of his father, Antipater. The site, now a national park in central Israel, was inhabited from the Chalcolithic Period to the late Roman Period. The remains of Antipatris are known today as Tel Afek . It has been identified as biblical Aphek, best known from the story of the Battle of Aphek. During the Crusader Period the site was known as Surdi fontes, "Silent springs". The Ottoman fortress known as Binar Bashi was built there in the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>Antipatris/Tel Afek lies at the strong perennial springs of the Yarkon River, which throughout history has created an obstacle between the hill country to the east and the Mediterranean to the west, forcing travellers and armies to pass through the narrow pass between the springs and the foothills of Samaria. This gave the location of Antipatris/Tel Afek its strategic importance.</p><br>
<p>Antipatris was situated on the Roman road from Caesarea Maritima to Jerusalem, north of the town of Lydda where the road turned eastwards towards Jerusalem. During the British Mandate, a water pumping station was built there to channel water from the Yarkon to Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>Today the remains of Antipatris are located east of Petah Tikva, near the old Arab village Kafr Saba, and west of Kafr Qasim and Rosh HaAyin.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Aphek</h3><br>
<p>The Bronze Age saw the construction of defensive walls, 2.5 m to 3.5 m wide, and a series of palaces. One of these is described as an Egyptian governor residence of the 15th century BC, and within, an array of cuneiform tablets were found. Philistine ware is found in the site in 12th century BC layers.</p><br>
<p>Most scholars agree that there were more than one Aphek. While Tel-Aphek (Antipatris) is one of them, C.R. Conder identified the Aphek of Eben-Ezer with a ruin (Khirbet) some 6 km distant from Dayr Aban (believed to be Eben-Ezer), and known by the name Marj al-Fikiya; the name al-Fikiya being an Arabic corruption of Aphek. Eusebius, when writing about Eben-ezer in his Onomasticon, says that it is "the place from which the Gentiles seized the Ark, between Jerusalem and Ascalon, near the village of Bethsamys (Beit Shemesh)," a locale that corresponds with Conder&#39;s identification.</p><br>
<h3>Antipatris</h3><br>
<p>Antipatris was a city built by Herod the Great, and named in honor of his father, Antipater II of Judea. It lay between Caesarea Maritima and Lydda, on the great Roman road from Caesarea to Jerusalem, and figures prominently in Roman-era history. During the outbreak of the Jewish war with Rome in 64 CE, the Roman army under Cestius was routed as far as Antipatris.</p><br>
<p>According to Josephus, Antipatris was built on the site of an older town that was formerly called Chabarzaba (כפר סבא).</p><br>
<p>Paul the Apostle was brought by night from Jerusalem to Antipatris and next day from there to Caesarea Maritima, to stand trial before the governor Antonius Felix.</p><br>
<p>Only one of the early bishops of the Christian bishopric of Antipatris, a suffragan of Caesarea, is mentioned by name in extant documentation: Polychronius, who was present both at the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. No longer a residential bishopric, Antipatris is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<p>In 363, the city was badly damaged by an earthquake.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman Ras al-Ayn</h3><br>
<p>Ottoman records indicate that a Mamluk fortress may have stood on the site. However, the Ottoman fortress was built following the publication of a firman in AD 1573 (981 H.):"You have sent a letter and have reported that four walls of the fortress Ras al-Ayn have been built, I have commanded that when arrives you shall the above mentioned rooms and mosque with its minaret and have the guards remove the earth outside and clean and tidy.</p><br>
<p>The Turkish name of the place and fortress, pınar başı, means "fountain-head" or simply "head of the springs", much like the Arabic and Hebrew names (Ras al-Ayin and Rosh ha-Ayin, "head of the springs"). Pronounced by Arabic-speakers, it became "Binar Bashi" (Arabic has no "p").</p><br>
<p>The fortress was built to protect a vulnerable stretch of the Cairo-Damascus highway (the Via Maris), and was provided with 100 horsemen and 30 foot soldiers. The fortress was also supposed to supply soldiers to protect the hajj route. The fortress is a massive rectangular enclosure with four corner towers and a gate at the centre of the west side. The south-west tower is octagonal, while the three other towers have a square ground plan.</p><br>
<p>It appeared named Chateau de Ras el Ain on the map that Pierre Jacotin compiled in 1799.</p><br>
<p>There had also been an Arab peasant village at the site which, however, became deserted in the 1920s.</p><br>
<h3>Yarkon-Tel Afek national park</h3><br>
<p>Currently, the site of Antipatris is included in the national park "Yarkon-Tel Afek", under the jurisdiction of the Israel National Parks Authority, incorporating the area of the Ottoman fortress, the remains of the Roman city and the British water pumping station.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<h3>Area A</h3><br>
<p>Interestingly—and significantly—the earliest winepresses discovered to date in the Southern Levant were excavated adjoining the Governor’s Residency at Tel Aphek, dated to the 13th century BC, the reign of Ramesses II. The two winepresses (pictured, right) were plastered and possessed two treading floors (Hebrew: gat elyonah, “upper vat”) in parallel configuration extending over 6 m². Beneath and next to these, the stone-lined plastered collection vats (Hebrew: gat tahtonah, “lower vat”) could each store over 3 m³, or 3,000 litres, of pressed grape juice. Canaanite amphorae were recovered still in situ at the bottom of each pit, while a midden of grape skins, seeds and other debris was discovered adjacent to the installations. The excavator has drawn attention to the proximity of these winepresses to the Residency, their large size and the fact that ancient winepresses were normally located outside settlements amongst the vineyards suggesting that the Egyptian administration supervised the viniculturists of the Sharon closely.</p><br>
<h3>Trade Links and Relations</h3><br>
<p>It is clear that Tel Aphek was a site not only at the centre of imperial administration, but also well-connected to the international trade in luxury goods, as reflected in the abundant finds of Cypriot and Mycenaean ceramics.</p><br>
<p>Illustrative of Cypro-Canaanite trade especially is a fragmentary amphora handle, clearly inscribed after firing with Sign 38 of the Cypro-Minoan Linear Script. The handle was excavated from secondary deposition in Aphek Area X, Locus 2953, belonging to the very meagre Stratum X11 built over the Governor’s Residency. An extreme likelihood exists, therefore, that the object belonged to the earlier, more prosperous Stratum XI2 of the Residency itself. Given the as-yet-undeciphered nature of the script, the precise significance of the post-firing addition of a Cypro-Minoan sign must remain uncertain. At minimum the sign indicates that individuals employing Cypro-Minoan script handled the vessel from which the handle derived. Combined with petrographic analysis of the clay employed in manufacturing the amphora—pointing to an origin in or within the vicinity of Akko—the readiest reconstruction from the evidence must be that the vessel (and any companions) was manufactured in the Akko region before shipping, either to such redistribution points as Tell Abu Hawam or Tel Nami, or (more likely) to Cyprus itself (perhaps via one of these ports), where it was likely emptied of its original contents—certainly marked—before being shipped back to the Levant (now probably containing Cypriot product) and achieving final deposition at Aphek.</p><br>
<p>Barbados is a continental island in the North Atlantic Ocean and is located at 13°10 north of the equator, and 59°32 west of the Prime Meridian. As the easternmost isle of the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies, Barbados lies 100 kilometres  east of the Windward Islands and Caribbean Sea. The maritime claim for Barbados is a territorial sea of 12 nmi, with an exclusive economic zone of 200 nmi, this gives Barbados a total maritime area of 183,436 km. Of the total EEZ area 70,000 km, is set aside for offshore oil exploration. A pending application to UNCLOS has placed for consideration a continental shelf 200 nmi to the east and south . To the west, however, most of Barbados&#39; maritime boundaries consist of median lines with neighbours. These neighbours include: Martinique, and Saint Lucia to the northwest, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to the west, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela to the southwest, and Guyana to the southeast.</p><br>
<p>Barbados&#39; total land area is 430 km², and it has a coastline of 97 km length. Sometimes compared to a pear or leg of mutton for its physical shape. Along the north-south axis Barbados has a maximum length of 34 km, and east-west maximum breadth of 23 km.</p><br>
<h2>Physical characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The physical characteristics of Barbados are its lowlands or gently sloping, terraced plains, separated by rolling hills that generally parallel the coasts. Elevations in the interior range from 180 to 240 meters above sea level. Mount Hillaby is the highest point at 340 meters above sea level. Farther south, at Christ Church Ridge, elevations range from sixty to ninety meters. Eighty-five percent of the islands surface consists of coralline limestone twenty-four to thirty meters thick; Scotland District contains outcroppings of oceanic formations at the surface, however. Sugarcane is planted on almost 80 percent of the islands limestone surface. The soils vary in fertility; erosion is a problem, with crop loss resulting from landslides, washouts, and falling rocks. Most of the small streams are in Scotland District. The rest of the island has few surface streams; nevertheless, rainwater saturates the soil to produce underground channels such as the famous Coles Cave. Also notable in the island is the rocky cape known as Pico Teneriffe or Pico de Tenerife, which is named after the fact that the island of Tenerife in Spain is the first land east of Barbados according to the belief of the locals.</p><br>
<h2>Proposed developments</h2><br>
<p>In 2009 and 2010, members of the upscale real estate industry in Barbados proposed the creation of artificial islands to be placed off the west coast. According to Paul Altman of Altman Realty the envisioned plan, would consist of two islands, one measuring 250 acre in size, and would house new tourism based developments and upscale boutique shops; while the second island would be 50 acre in size, and would serve as an open national park. Both proposed islands would be a short distance from the Deep Water Harbour in Bridgetown.</p><br>
<p>The south-eastern part of the island has undergone small scale oil and gas capturing from possibly as early as 1919 when the British Union Oil Company acquired over 75% of the drilling rights in Barbados. Similar to Trinidad and Tobago to the southwest, the territorial Atlantic Ocean surrounding Barbados has been found to contain fossil fuels, however ongoing research is being conducted to give estimates of actual quantities.</p><br>
<h2>Time zone</h2><br>
<p>Barbados is in the Eastern Caribbean Time Zone. Barbados no longer observes Daylight Saving Time. It was last used between Sunday, 20 April 1980 at 2:00 AM and Thursday, 25 September 1980 at 2:00 AM. On 25 September of that year the clock was shifted from -3:00 to -4:00, where it has remained since.</p><br>
<h2>Statistics</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<h3>Area</h3><br>
<h3>Area comparative</h3><br>
<h3>Land boundaries</h3><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h3>Terrain</h3><br>
<h3>Natural resources</h3><br>
<h3>Land use</h3><br>
<h3>Natural hazards</h3><br>
<h3>Environment - current issues</h3><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Barbados lies within the tropics. Its generally pleasant maritime climate is influenced by northeast trade winds, which moderate the tropical temperature. Cool, northeasterly trade winds are prevalent during the December to June dry season. The overall annual temperature ranges from 24 to 28 °C; slightly lower temperatures prevail at higher elevations. Humidity levels are between 71 percent and 76 percent year round. Rainfall occurs primarily between June and December and varies considerably with elevation. Rainfall may average 1,875 mm per year in the higher central area as compared with 1,275 mm in the coastal zone.</p><br>
<h2>Disputes</h2><br>
<p>Guyana and Barbados have a portion of maritime which overlap and are disputed with Venezuela, the latter of which claims ownership of the maritime overlapping the first two. In 2008 Barbados sought to place the oil blocks on open market for oil exploration tender but faced a challenge by Venezuela&#39;s government in Caracas.</p><br>
<p>In 2006 a local Barbadian group purporting to represent descendants of indigenous Caribbean peoples announced its claim to Culpepper Island, a small rocky outcrop on the eastern shore of Barbados.</p><br>
<p>Baffin Island , in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest island in the world. Its area is 507,451 km&sup2; and its population is about 11,000 . It is located 65.4215 N and 70.9654 W. Named after English explorer William Baffin, it is likely that the island was known to Pre-Columbian Norse explorers from Greenland and Iceland and that it was the location of Helluland, spoken of in the Icelandic sagas .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Iqaluit, the capital of Nunavut, is located on the southeastern coast. Until 1987, the town shared the name Frobisher Bay with the bay on which it is located.</p><br>
<p>To the south lies Hudson Strait, separating Baffin Island from mainland Quebec. South of the western end of the island is the Fury and Hecla Strait which separates the island from the Melville Peninsula on the mainland. To the east are Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, with Greenland beyond. The Foxe Basin, the Gulf of Boothia and Lancaster Sound separate Baffin Island from the rest of the archipelago to the west and north.</p><br>
<p>The Baffin Mountains run along the northeastern shore of the island and are a part of the Arctic Cordillera. Mount Odin is the highest peak, with an elevation of at least 2,143 m, although some sources say 2,147 m. Another peak of note is Mount Asgard, located in Auyuittuq National Park, with an elevation of 2,011 m. Mount Thor, with an elevation of 1,675 m, is said to have the greatest purely vertical drop of any mountain on Earth, at 1,250 m.</p><br>
<p>The two largest lakes on the island lie in the south-central part of the island: Nettilling Lake (5,542 km&sup2;) and Amadjuak Lake (3,115 km&sup2;) further south.</p><br>
<p>The Barnes Ice Cap, in the middle of the island, has been retreating since at least the early 1960s, when the Geographical Branch of the then-Department of Mines and Technical Surveys sent a three-man survey team to the area to measure isostatic rebound and cross-valley features of the Isortoq River. Conversely, in the 1970s parts of Baffin Island failed to have the usual ice-free period in the summer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island has been continuously inhabited by Inuit peoples for centuries. In September 2008, Nunatsiaq News reported that a team led by Dr. Patricia Sutherland of the Canadian Museum of Civilization had found archaeological remains of yarn, Eurasian rats, tally sticks, a carved wooden Dorset culture face mask depicting Caucasian features, and possible architectural remains, which indicated that European traders and possibly settlers had been on Baffin Island not later than AD 1000. What the source of this Old World contact may have been is unclear; the report states: "Dating of some yarn and other artifacts, presumed to be left by Vikings on Baffin Island, have produced an age that predates the Vikings by several hundred years. So you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, these finds may represent evidence of contact with Europeans prior to the Vikings arrival in Greenland". Dr Sutherlands research eventually led to a 2012 announcement that whetstones had been found with remnants of alloys indicative of Viking presence. The archaeological site at Tanfield Valley is thought to have been a trading post, and thus Baffin Island would be Helluland.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Baffin Island is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region.</p><br>
<h3>Communities by population</h3><br>
<p>It should be noted that hamlets of Cape Dorset and Qikiqtarjuaq do not lie on the Baffin Island proper. Cape Dorset is situated on the Dorset Island which is located few kilometers from the south eastern tip of the Foxe Peninsula. Similarly, Qikiqtarjuaq is situated on the Broughton Island which located near the northern coast of the Cumberland Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>There are discussions to start the Baffinland Iron Mine, an iron ore mine with a 21-year life, at Mary River, and to build a railway and a port to transport the ore. This may create a temporary mining community there.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Baffin Island has both year-round and summer visitor wildlife. On land, examples of year-round wildlife are barren-ground caribou, polar bear, Arctic fox, Arctic hare, lemming and Arctic wolf.</p><br>
<p>Barren-ground caribou herds that migrate in a limited range from northern Baffin island down to the southern part in winter, even to the Frobisher Bay peninsula, next to Resolution Island and migrate back north in the summer. In 2012, a survey of caribou herds found that the local population was only about 5000, a decrease of as much as 95% from the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>Polar bears can be found all along the coast of Baffin Island, but are most prevalent where the sea ice takes the form of pack ice, where their major food sources — ringed seals (jar seal) and bearded seals — live. Polar bears mate approximately every year with from one to three cubs being born around March. Female polar bears may travel 10 - inland to find a large snow bank where they dig a den in which to spend the winter and later for giving birth. The polar bear population here is one of 19 genetically distinct demes of the circumpolar region.</p><br>
<p>Arctic foxes can usually be found where polar bears venture on the fast ice close to land in their search for seals. Arctic foxes are scavengers, and often follow polar bears to get their leavings. On Baffin Island, Arctic foxes are sometimes trapped by Inuit, but there is not a robust fur industry.</p><br>
<p>Arctic hares are found throughout Baffin island. Their fur is pure white in winter and molts to a scruffy dark grey in summer. Arctic hares and lemmings are a primary food source for Arctic foxes and Arctic wolves.</p><br>
<p>Lemmings are also found throughout the island, and are a major food source for Arctic foxes, Arctic wolves and the snowy owl. In the winter, lemmings dig complicated tunnel systems through the snow drifts in order to get to their food supply of dry grasses and lichens.</p><br>
<p>The Arctic wolf, and the Baffin Island wolf, a gray wolf subspecies, is also a year-round resident of Baffin Island. Unlike the gray wolf in southern climes, Arctic wolves often do not hunt in packs, although a male-female pair may hunt together.</p><br>
<p>In the water (or under the ice) the year-round visitors are mainly the ringed seal.</p><br>
<p>The ringed seal lives off-shore within 8 km of land. During the winter, it makes a number of breathing holes through ice up to 8 ft thick by visiting each one often, and keeping the hole open and free from ice. In March, when a female is ready to whelp, she will enlarge one of the breathing holes that has snow over it, and create a small "igloo" where they whelp one or two pups. Within three weeks the pups are in the water and swimming. During the summer, ringed seals keep to a narrow territory approximately 3 km along the shoreline. If pack ice moves in, they may venture out 4 - and follow the pack ice, dragging themselves up on an ice floe to take advantage of the sun.</p><br>
<p>Nesting birds are summer land visitors to Baffin Island. Baffin Island is one of the major nesting destinations from the Eastern and Mid-West flyways for many species of migrating birds. Waterfowl include Canada goose, snow goose and brant goose (brent goose). Shore birds include the phalarope, various waders (commonly called sandpipers), murres including Brünnich&#39;s guillemot, and plovers. Three gull species also nest on Baffin Island: glaucous gull, herring gull and ivory gull.</p><br>
<p>Long-range travellers include the Arctic tern, which migrates from Antarctica every spring. The variety of water birds that nest here include coots, loons, mallards, and many other duck species.</p><br>
<p>Water species that visit Baffin Island in the summer are:</p><br>
<p>Harp seals (or saddle-backed seals), which migrate from major breeding grounds off the coast of Labrador and the southeast coast of Greenland to Baffin Island for the summer. Migrating at speeds of 15 -, they all come up to breathe at the same time, then dive and swim up to 1 – before surfacing again. They migrate in large pods consisting of a hundred or more seals, to within 1 – of the shoreline, which they then follow, feeding on crustaceans and fish.</p><br>
<p>Walrus, which actually do not migrate far off land in the winter. They merely follow the "fast ice", or ice that is solidly attached to land, and stay ahead of it as the ice hardens further and further out to sea. As winter progresses, they will always remain where there is open water free of ice. When the ice melts, they move in to land and can be found basking on rocks close to shore. One of the largest walrus herds can be found in the Foxe Basin on the western side of Baffin Island.</p><br>
<p>Beluga or white whales migrate along the coast of Baffin Island as some head north to the feeding grounds in the Davis Strait between Greenland and Baffin Island, or into the Hudson Strait or any of the bays and estuaries in between. Usually travelling in pods of two or more, they can often be found very close to shore (100 m, or less), where they come up to breathe every 30 seconds or so as they make their way along the coastline eating crustaceans.</p><br>
<p>Narwhals, which are known for their long, spiralling single tusk (males only), can also be found along the coast of Baffin Island in the summer. Much like their beluga cousins they may be found in pairs or even in a large pod of ten or more males, females and newborns. They also can be often found close to the shoreline, gracefully pointing their tusks skyward as they come up for air. When they first arrive, the males arrive a few weeks ahead of the females and young.</p><br>
<p>The largest summer visitor to Baffin Island is the bowhead whale. Found throughout the Arctic range, one group of bowhead whales are known to migrate to the Foxe Basin, a bay on the western side of Baffin Island. It is still not known whether they visit for the lush sea bounty or to calve in the Foxe Basin.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Baffin Island lies in the path of a generally northerly airflow all year round, so, like much of northeastern Canada, it has an extremely cold climate. This brings very long, cold winters and foggy, cloudy summers, which have helped to add to the remoteness of the island. Spring thaw arrives much later than normal for a position straddling the Arctic Circle; around early June at Iqaluit in the south-east to early/mid-July on the north coast where glaciers run right down to sea level. Snow, even heavy snow, can occur at any time of the year, although it is least likely in July and early August. Average annual temperatures at Iqaluit are around -9.5 &deg;C, compared with Reykjavík, around 5 &deg;C, which is at a similar latitude.</p><br>
<p>Sea ice surrounds the island for most of the year, and only disappears completely from the north coast for short unpredictable periods from mid- to late June until the end of September.</p><br>
<p>Most of Baffin Island lies above the Arctic Circle and all the communities from Pangnirtung northwards have polar night in winter and the midnight sun in summer. The eastern community of Clyde River has twilight instead of night from April 26 until May 13, continuous sunlight for 2½ months from May 14 to July 28, then twilight instead of night from July 29 until August 16. This gives the community just over 3½ months without true night. In the winter the sun sets on November 22 and does not rise again until January 19 of the next year. The Pond Inlet has Civil twilight lasts from December 16 to December 26. However, there is twilight for at least 4 hours a day, unlike places such as Eureka.</p><br>
<p>The Second Temple  was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. According to Jewish tradition, it replaced Solomon&#39;s Temple , which was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered and part of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile to Babylon.</p><br>
<p>Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple.</p><br>
<h2>Biblical narrative</h2><br>
<p>The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible. According to the Bible, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great, construction started at the original site of Solomon&#39;s Temple. After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had filled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity, work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius the Great and was completed during the sixth year of his reign (c. 516 BCE), with the temple dedication taking place the following year.</p><br>
<p>The events take place in the second half of the 5th century BCE. Listed together with the Book of Ezra as Ezra-Nehemiah, it represents the final chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.</p><br>
<p>The original core of the book, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.</p><br>
<p>The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel&#39;s enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.</p><br>
<p>Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360, having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple and reinstituting the sacrificial rituals known as the korbanot.</p><br>
<p>On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm. First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators.</p><br>
<p>The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work. Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.</p><br>
<p>Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the "false Smerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion, under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people, although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first.</p><br>
<p>Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked the following holy articles:</p><br>
<p>The Ark of the Covenant containing the Tablets of Stone, before which were placed the pot of manna and Aaron&#39;s rod</p><br>
<p>The Urim and Thummim (divination objects contained in the Hoshen)</p><br>
<p>The holy oil</p><br>
<p>The sacred fire.</p><br>
<p>In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of Holies) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included:</p><br>
<p>The Menorah (golden lamp) for the Hekhal</p><br>
<p>The Table of Showbread</p><br>
<p>The golden altar of incense, with golden censers.</p><br>
<p>According to the Mishnah (Middot iii. 6), the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur.</p><br>
<p>The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 22b), however, the Temple lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, the Spirit of Holiness, present in the first.</p><br>
<h2>Rabbinical literature</h2><br>
<p>Traditional rabbinic literature state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, placed construction in 350 BCE (3408 AM), 166 years later than secular estimates, and destruction in 70 CE (3829 AM).</p><br>
<h2>Rededication by the Maccabees</h2><br>
<p>Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Paneion. Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria. When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services stopped, Judaism was effectively outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also banned circumcision and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the Temple.</p><br>
<p>Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean kingdom, as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah.</p><br>
<h2>Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest</h2><br>
<p>There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was in line to be the king, agreed to be contented with being the high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey&#39;s forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.</p><br>
<h2>Herod's Temple</h2><br>
<p>Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process. When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple, Herod&#39;s grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Herod&#39;s Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE. Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities: the sacrificial rituals, called offerings, were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction, and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests. Later the Exodus 30:13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.</p><br>
<h3>Platform</h3><br>
<p>Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herods plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone "bricks" were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons, while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons). King Herod had architects from Greece, Rome and Egypt plan the construction. The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels. Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out. Once they were removed, they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed. The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints. They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts. Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent. Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes. Roman pulleys and cranes werent strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them. As the mountainside began to rise, the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face, which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level. Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill.</p><br>
<p>The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah. Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. (6m) below the current level, as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels. Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years, but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer, although the Temple itself may have taken that long. During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years. It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE.</p><br>
<h3>Court of the Gentiles</h3><br>
<p>This area was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food, as well as currency changers, exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord, as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims. Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available. Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself.</p><br>
<p>The priests, in their white linen robes and tubular hats, were everywhere, directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacrifices were to be performed.</p><br>
<p>Behind them, as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates, was the Royal Porch, which contained a marketplace, administrative quarters, and a synagogue. On the upper floors, the great Jewish sages held court, priests and Levites performed various chores, and from there, tourists were able to observe the events. The Royal Porch is widely accepted to be part of Herods work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the first century BCE, while the theory that Herod began the extension and the Royal Porch is based mainly on Josephuss possibly politically motivated claim. During Herod&#39;s reign the porch was not yet open to the public)</p><br>
<p>To the east of the court was Solomon&#39;s Porch, and to the north, the soreg, the "middle wall of separation", a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter, described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus (Wars 5.5.2 6.2.4).</p><br>
<h3>Pinnacle</h3><br>
<p>The accounts of Jesus temptations in Matthews and Luke&#39;s gospels both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more pinnacles (το πτερυγιον του ιερου):</p><br>
<h3>Inside the Soreg</h3><br>
<p>According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate. The gates were: On the south side (going from west to east) the Fuel Gate, the Firstling Gate, the Water Gate. On the north side, from west to east, are the Jeconiah Gate, the Offering Gate, the Women&#39;s Gate and the Song Gate. On the Eastern side, the Nicanor gate, which is where most Jewish visitors entered. A few pieces of the Soreg have survived to the present day.</p><br>
<p>Within this area was the Court of the Women, open to all Jews, male and female. Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties. There was also a place for lepers (considered ritually unclean), as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites. In this, the largest of the temple courts, one could see constant dancing, singing and music.</p><br>
<p>Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites, where they could observe sacrifices of the high priest in the Court of the Priests. The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests.</p><br>
<h3>Temple sanctuary</h3><br>
<p>Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temple: the menorah, the incense-burning altar, and various other implements.</p><br>
<h2>Pilgrimages</h2><br>
<p>Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa (now part of Tel Aviv), where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered religious. The pilgrims would purchase sacrificial animals, usually a pigeon or a lamb, in preparation for the following day&#39;s events.</p><br>
<p>The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple Mount complex. They would check their animals, then visit a mikveh, where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves. The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals, and head to the Huldah gates. After ascending a staircase three stories in height, and passing through the gate, the pilgrims would find themselves in the Court of the Gentiles.</p><br>
<h2>Destruction</h2><br>
<p>In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, in 70 CE, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The Arch of Titus, located in Rome and built to commemorate Titus&#39; victory in Judea, depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79 CE—possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.</p><br>
<p>The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees.</p><br>
<p>The destruction date according to the Hebrew calendar was the 9th of Av, also known as Tisha BAv. The Temple itself was located on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock. The gates let out close to Al-Aqsa Mosque (which came much later). Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem. A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herods Temple.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 × 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the soreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:</p><br>
<p>Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul&#39;s Museum of Antiquities.</p><br>
<p>In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found. After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions Gate. Thus, the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount. Currently, Robinsons Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. This had been used by the priests as an entrance. Commoners had entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side which led through colonnades to the top of the platform. One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archeological digs have found thousands of mikvehs (ceremonial bathtubs) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, as well as a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon&#39;s Stables, which still exist and whose current renovation by the Waqf is extremely controversial. The temple itself was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight.</p><br>
<p>On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.</p><br>
<p>The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.</p><br>
<h2>Second Temple Judaism</h2><br>
<p>The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes that would affect most subsequent Abrahamic religions. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period.</p><br>
<p>Victoria Island  is a large island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago that straddles the boundary between Nunavut and the Northwest Territories of Canada. It is the eighth largest island in the world, and at 217,291 km&sup2; in area, it is Canadas second largest island. It is nearly double the size of Newfoundland , and is slightly larger than the island of Great Britain . It contains the worlds largest island within an island within an island. The western third of the island belongs to the Inuvik Region in the Northwest Territories; the remainder is part of Nunavut&#39;s Kitikmeot Region.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1826 John Richardson saw the southwest coast and called it "Wollaston Land". In 1839 Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson followed its southeast coast and called it "Victoria Land". A map published by John Barrow in 1846 shows a complete blank from these two lands north to "Banks Land" which is the north coast of Banks Island. In 1851 John Rae charted its entire south coast and connected the two "lands". In 1850 and 1851 Robert McClure circumnavigated most of Banks Island, thereby separating it from the rest of Victoria Land. His men also charted the northwest and west coasts of Victoria Island.</p><br>
<p>One of Roald Amundsens men, Godfred Hansen, charted its east coast as far as Cape Nansen in 1905, and in 1916 and 1917 Storker T. Storkerson, of Vilhjalmur Stefanssons Canadian Arctic Expedition, charted its northeast coast, discovering the Storkerson Peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Location and description</h2><br>
<p>Viscount Melville Sound lies to the north, and the M&#39;Clintock Channel and Victoria Strait lie eastward. On the west are Amundsen Gulf and Banks Island, which is separated from Victoria by a long sound called the Prince of Wales Strait. To the south (from west to east) lies the Dolphin and Union Strait, Austin Bay, Coronation Gulf and the Dease Strait.</p><br>
<p>The southern waterways, and sometimes the Prince of Wales Strait, form part of the disputed Northwest Passage which the Government of Canada claims are Canadian Internal Waters, while other nations state they are either territorial waters or international waters.</p><br>
<p>Victoria Island is an island of peninsulas, having a heavily indented coastline with many inlets. In the east, pointing northwards, is the Storkerson Peninsula, which ends with the Goldsmith Channel, the body of water separating Victoria from Stefansson Island. The Storkerson Peninsula is separated from the islands north-central areas by Hadley Bay, a major inlet. Another, broad peninsula is found in the north, Prince Albert Peninsula. This ends at the Prince of Wales Strait. In the south, and pointing westwards, is the Wollaston Peninsula, separated from the islands central areas by Prince Albert Sound. The island as a whole coincidentally resembles a stylized maple leaf, the main Canadian symbol.</p><br>
<p>The highest point of Victoria Island is 655 m in the Shaler Mountains in the north-central region. Located in the southeast, just north of Cambridge Bay is Ferguson Lake with an area of 562 km&sup2; is the largest lake on the island.</p><br>
<p>The island is named after Queen Victoria, the Canadian sovereign from 1867 to 1901. The features bearing the name "Prince Albert" are named after her consort.</p><br>
<p>There is also a smaller Victoria Island in Nunavut, located in Amadjuak Lake on Baffin Island.</p><br>
<p>The Dolphin-Union Caribou herd locally known as Island Caribou are a migratory population of barren-ground caribou, Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus, that occupy Victoria Island in Canada&#39;s High Arctic and the nearby mainland. They are endemic to Canada. They migrate across the Dolphin and Union Strait from their summer grazing on Victoria Island to their winter grazing area on the Nunavut-NWT mainland in Canada. It is unusual for North American caribou to seasonally cross sea ice and the only other caribou to do so are the Peary caribou who are smaller in size and population.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>In the Canada 2006 Census the population of the island was 1,875; 1,477 in Nunavut and 398 in the Northwest Territories. Of the two settlements on the island the largest is Cambridge Bay, which lies on the south-east coast and is in Nunavut. Ulukhaktok is on the west coast and is in the Northwest Territories. Trading posts, such as Fort Collinson on the northwest coast, have long since been abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Herm  is one of the Channel Islands and part of the Parish of St Peter Port in the Bailiwick of Guernsey. It is located in the English Channel, north-west of France and south of England. It is 1.5 mi long and under 0.5 mi wide; orientated north-south, with several stretches of sand along its northern coast. The much larger island of Guernsey lies to the west and Jersey to the south-east, and the smaller island of Jethou is just off the south-west coast.</p><br>
<p>Herm was first discovered in the Mesolithic period, and the first settlers arrived in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Many tombs from that period remain today, the majority in the north of the island. The island was annexed to the Duchy of Normandy in 933, but returned to the English Crown with the division of Normandy in 1204. It was occupied by Germany in the Second World War and the scene of Operation Huckaback, but was largely bypassed. Herm is currently managed by Herm Island Ltd, formed by Starboard Settlement, who acquired Herm in 2008, following fears during the sale of the island that the identity of the island was at threat.</p><br>
<p>Herms harbour is on its west coast. There are several buildings of note in the vicinity including the White House, St Tuguals Chapel, Fisherman&#39;s Cottage, "The Mermaid" pub and restaurant, and a small primary school with about eight children. During a busy summer season, up to 100,000 tourists visit the island, arriving by one of the catamaran ferries operated by the Trident Charter Company. Cars are banned from the island, as are bicycles; quad bikes and tractors used for staff and luggage transport respectively are allowed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Herm was first found in the Mesolithic period (between 10,000 and 8,000 B.C), when hunters were in search of food. In the Neolithic and Bronze ages, settlers arrived; the remains of chamber tombs have been found on the island, and may be seen today; specifically on the Common, and the Petit and Grand Monceau</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>The first records of Herms inhabitants in historic times are from the 6th century, when the island became a centre of monastic activity; the followers of Saint Tugual (also called Tudwal) arrived, establishing Saint Tuguals Chapel.</p><br>
<p>An important moment in Herm&#39;s political history was in 933, when the Channel Islands were annexed to the Duchy of Normandy, they remained so until the division of Normandy in 1204, when they became a Crown Dependency. In 1111 Brother Claude Panton was a hermit in "Erm" After the annexation, Herm gradually lost its monastic inhabitants, and between 1570 and 1737 the governors of Guernsey used it as a hunting ground; visiting to shoot, hunt, and fish.</p><br>
<h3>19th century to the Second World War</h3><br>
<p>In 1810, an inn was founded; and during the Industrial Revolution, roads, paths, a harbour, accommodation, a forge, blacksmiths, a brewery, a bakery and a prison were built to cater for the largest number of inhabitants since prehistoric times. Most were quarrymen working in new granite quarries. Several quarries can still be seen at present, such as on the Common. When the Prince and Princess Blücher leased the island from the British government during the First World War, he introduced a colony of Red-necked wallabies to the island, around 60-70 in number. They increased up to the First World War, after which they decreased in numbers, and the remaining few were re-captured and put in enclosures.</p><br>
<p>Compton Mackenzie, an English born Scottish novelist, acquired the tenancy. He recalled that his three years there had numerous logistical problems. It has been suggested that Mackenzie was the basis for the character Mr Cathcart in D.H. Lawrence&#39;s The Man who Loved Islands, about a man who moved to ever smaller islands much as Mackenzie moved from Herm to the smaller Jethou, but Lawrence himself denied it. At one point Mackenzie threatened to sue. However, Mackenzie did love islands and would graduate from Herm to the Hebrides.</p><br>
<p>The German occupation of the Channel Islands during the Second World War essentially by-passed Herm. The island was claimed on 20 July 1940 by the Third Reich, a few weeks after the arrival of German troops in Guernsey and Jersey, German soldiers landed on the island to shoot a propaganda film, The Invasion of the Isle of Wight. Herm&#39;s sandy beaches were soon used for practising landings from barges, in preparation for the invasion of England, but otherwise the island saw little of the Germans beyond officers making trips to shoot rabbits. Herm had only a little German construction during the war; a flak battery was placed on the island for a few weeks, and mines were placed in an area. Occasionally German soldiers would travel to Herm to cut wood for fuel. In April 1945 a German officer, Oberst von Helldorf was exiled to Herm for not displaying sufficient loyalty to the Führer.</p><br>
<h4>Operation Huckaback</h4><br>
<p>Operation Huckaback was a British Second World War military operation that was originally designed to be a raid on Herm, Jethou and Brecqhou, but instead became only a raid on Herm undertaken on the night of 27 February 1943, following an earlier attempt that had been aborted. Ten men of the Small Scale Raiding Force and No. 4 Commando under Captain Patrick Anthony Porteous landed 200 yards to the north-west of Selle Rocque on a shingle beach and made several unsuccessful attempts to climb the cliff in front of them. Porteous finally managed to climb up the bed of a stream and pulled the others up with a rope. They later reported that they had found no sign of any Islanders or Germans (who were supposed to be billeted near the harbour). They had failed to make contact with the few civilians on the island whose duties included looking after the sheep.</p><br>
<h3>Since 1945</h3><br>
<p>In 1949, the States of Guernsey bought Herm from the Crown because of the "unspoilt island idyll that could be enjoyed by locals and tourists alike". but they created a school, and restored St Tuguals Chapel. Major Woods daughter Pennie Wood Heyworth and her husband Adrian succeeded them; Major Wood died in 1998. Their early efforts are recorded in Herm, Our Island Home, written by Major Wood&#39;s wife Jenny Wood.</p><br>
<p>On 17 May 2008, the BBC reported that the tenants had put the remaining 40 years of their lease up for sale, with an asking price of £15,000,000. Within four days, there were over 50 potential buyers, which led to fears from residents In September 2008 it was announced that Starboard Settlement, a trust, had acquired the remainder of the lease for considerably less than the asking price. The trust formed a company based in Guernsey, Herm Island Ltd, to manage the island for the trustees.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, negotiations for a 21-year extension to the lease broke down, with the tenant offering £440,000 and the owner requesting £6,000,000 plus improvements to infrastructure.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Herm is only 1½ miles long (north-south) and less than half a mile wide (east-west). To the east of the common is Shell Beach and to the west is The Bears Beach, leading down to the harbour. Half of the coastline of the northern part of the island is surrounded by sandy beaches; the southern half is rocky. In 2008, Adrian Heyworth, who was at the time the islands tenant, said that two or three metres of sand were being lost annually at Alderney Point.</p><br>
<p>Off the northwestern coast of Herm is the islet of Le Plat Houmet, and beyond that Fondu, which like Herm belongs to Guernsey. In Belvoir Bay on the eastern side of the island are the islets of Mouliere, situated off Frenchmans Point which is to the northeast of the manor village, and Caquorobert. To the south of this off the southeastern coast is Puffin Bay, which contains the islet of Putrainez near the coast and the islet of Selle Rocque further out to the south. The far southwestern point of the island is Point Sauzebourge, and Bishops Cove is just to the north of this. North of the cove and south along the beach from the harbour and White House are the Rosiere Steps, with a quarry and cottage of the same name in the vicinity. The Mouette and Percee reefs are offshore here. Hermetier, along known as Rats Island, lies about 250 m off the western coast between Fishermans Beach and The Bear&#39;s Beach, to the north of the harbour, linked by a low causeway from the beach.</p><br>
<p>The isle of Jethou is around three-quarters of a mile to the southwest beyond Point Sauzebourge. It is possible that in AD 709 a storm washed away the strip of land that connected Jethou to Herm. About 215 m off the northern coast of Jethou is the islet of Crevichon, which measures about 212 m by 168 m, with an area of less than three hectares. To the west, between Herm and Guernsey, lies the channel Little Roussel (Petit Ruau); between Herm and Sark, to the east, lies the Big Roussel (Grand Ruau). The tower was created by Thomas Charles de Putron (1806–1869) using granite from Herm between 1854 and 1856.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Herm is part of the St Peter Port parish of Guernsey but is not part of any canton. It belongs to the Electoral District of Saint Peter Port South. It is rented out to various tenants. and, unlike the largely autonomous islands of Sark and Alderney within the Bailiwick, Herm is administered entirely by the States of Guernsey.</p><br>
<p>Cars and bicycles are banned from Herm, in order to keep "peace and tranquility". However, Herm does allow quad bikes and tractors for staff and luggage transport respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Economy and services</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is Herm&#39;s main source of income.</p><br>
<p>During a busy summer season, up to 100,000 tourists visit the island, Money is also made from vegetable growing, livestock and the occasional issue of stamps. The residents in Herm are workers on the island and their families.</p><br>
<p>There are three volunteer Special Constables resident on the island, trained and supervised by the States of Guernsey Police Service. On Bank Holidays they are augmented by a visiting full-time Constable from Guernsey. Crime rates on the island are low.</p><br>
<p>There are no medical facilities on Herm and no resident doctor. and receives regular training from the Guernsey Ambulance and Rescue Service, a private company operating on a charitable basis under the umbrella of the Venerable Order of Saint John. Medical evacuation to hospital in Guernsey, where necessary, is achieved by means of the ambulance launch Flying Christine III operated by the Guernsey Ambulance and Rescue Service.</p><br>
<p>A voluntary fire service operates on the island. Herm Fire Brigade operates a tractor-hauled fire tender with a hose-reel, a pump, a 2,000-litre water tank, and basic fire-fighting equipment which they use while waiting for assistance from the Guernsey Fire Brigade, who also provide the Herm volunteers with training and support.</p><br>
<h2>Notable landmarks</h2><br>
<p>The nondenominational St Tuguals Chapel dates to the 11th century, but it is believed that there was a place of worship on Herm as far back as the 6th century, although it hasnt been confirmed whether the chapel was founded by St Tugual himself or his followers at a later date. The current building is Norman and appears to have been a monastery during medieval times. Of particular note is its stained glass windows featuring Noah&#39;s Ark and Guernsey cows and Jesus talking to the fisherman at Herm harbour.</p><br>
<p>Other buildings on the island include the White House hotel, "The Mermaid" pub and restaurant, and 20 self-catering cottages. Herm has no consecrated religious buildings or resident professional clergy, but visiting clergy conducts non-denominational weekly services during the summer months, and monthly services, led by local lay people, are held during the winter.</p><br>
<p>Sculptor Antony Gormley had a sculpture installed on Herm in 2010, originally planned to be removed after one year, but it received such a positive reception that it was kept for two years, and removed in 2012. The statue was number XI (11) of the Another Time series.</p><br>
<h2>Education and culture</h2><br>
<p>A number of French/Norman placenames remain, from the period when the island was in the jurisdiction of the Duchy of Normandy. The primary present language on Herm is English.</p><br>
<p>Herm has one primary school, with around eight pupils; they are taught by a teacher who travels from Guernsey daily. Children over nine are schooled in Guernsey, usually as boarders.</p><br>
<p>Herm has won Britain in Bloom categories several times: in 2002, 2008, and 2012, Herm won the Britain in Bloom Gold Award. The author, Compton Mackenzie, who was the island tenant 1920-23, represented it in Fairy Gold, albeit in a fictional representation.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of the island was recognised in 2016 as an area of international environmental importance under the Ramsar Convention.</p><br>
<p>Calf of Man , is a 618 acre island , off the southwest coast of the Isle of Man. It is separated from the Isle of Man by a narrow stretch of water called the Calf Sound. Like the nearby rocky islets of Chicken Rock and Kitterland, it is part of the parish of Rushen. It has only two seasonal inhabitants. The word calf derives from the Old Norse word kalfr which means a small island lying near a larger one. It is possible to reach the Calf of Man by boat from both Port Erin and Port St Mary. Cow Harbour and South Harbour are the main landing places. The highest part of the island is in the west where an unnamed peak reaches 415 feet  above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Until 1939 the island was under private ownership by the Keig family, but the island was purchased by Mr F J Dickens of Silverdale, Lancashire who then donated it to the National Trust to become a bird sanctuary. In 1951 the Manx National Trust was established, which became Manx National Heritage. In 2006 Manx National Heritage employed the charity Manx Wildlife Trust as the Calf Warden Service Provider, but it retains ownership. The island has been a bird observatory since 1959 and welcomes visits from volunteers and ornithologists. The observatory is able to accommodate up to eight visitors in basic self-catering accommodation which can be booked through Manx National Heritage.</p><br>
<p>The Calf of Man and its offshore rocks have no fewer than four lighthouses: two lighthouses were built in 1818 by Robert Stevenson to warn mariners of the hazards of the Chicken Rocks off the south end of the Calf. These were replaced in 1875 by a lighthouse built on the Chicken Rocks themselves. In 1968, a third lighthouse was built on the Calf after a severe fire destroyed the Chicken Rocks light. The Chicken Rocks lighthouse was later rebuilt. There are two minor, unfenced roads on the island and two very short streams.</p><br>
<p>Between the Isle of Man and the Calf is the islet of Kitterland, while the islets of Yn Burroo and The Stack lie close to the Calfs shore. The southern shore of the island encloses a small bay called The Puddle. Almost a mile southwest of the Calf is Chicken Rock, the most southerly part of the Isle of Mans territory.</p><br>
<p>Calf of Man is home to a breeding population of Manx shearwaters, a seabird which derives its name from its presence in Manx waters. The Calf of Man also has a large colony of seals which live and breed on the rocky coastline.</p><br>
<p>The Eastern Scheldt  is a former estuary in the province of Zeeland, Netherlands, between Schouwen-Duiveland and Tholen on the north and Noord-Beveland and Zuid-Beveland on the south. It is also the largest national park in the Netherlands, founded in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Landscape and history</h2><br>
<p>During the Roman Era it was the major mouth of the Scheldt River. Before the St. Felix&#39;s Flood of 1530, it flowed north as a river from the east end of the Westerschelde, turned west a little west of Bergen op Zoom, and then west along the north edge of what is now the Verdronken Land van Reimerswaal, and after that widened into an estuary. Later parts of that lost land were reclaimed, restricting part of the connection to the Scheldt River to a narrow channel called the Kreekrak, which silted up and became unnavigable. In 1867 the Kreekrak was closed off with a railway embankment, connecting in the process the island of Zuid-Beveland to the mainland of North Brabant. From that moment on, the Oosterschelde lost its connection with the Scheldt, and is no longer functioning as an estuary.</p><br>
<p>Between Schouwen-Duiveland and Noord-Beveland there are two road connections, the Oosterscheldedam on the west and the Zeeland Bridge on the east.</p><br>
<h2>Storm surge barrier and dam</h2><br>
<p>After the North Sea flood of 1953, it was decided to close off the Oosterschelde by means of a dam and barrier. The Oosterscheldekering (Eastern Scheldt Storm Surge Barrier), between Schouwen-Duiveland and Noord-Beveland, is the largest of 13 ambitious Delta Works designed to protect a large part of the Netherlands from flooding. A four-kilometre section has huge sluice gates, which are normally open but can be closed in adverse weather.</p><br>
<p>Upon completion of the barrier in 1986, the flow of water decreased and the tidal height differential reduced from 3.40 m to 3.25 m. As a result, no new sand is being deposited on the sand bars—they are now slowly eroding, changing the character of the coast.</p><br>
<h2>Oosterschelde National Park</h2><br>
<p>Since May 8, 2002, the entire Oosterschelde was designated a national park. Its boundaries are the dikes of Schouwen-Duiveland, Tholen and Sint-Philipsland, Noord-Beveland and Zuid-Beveland, and the dams of the Delta Works. Having an area of 370 km&sup2, it is the largest national park in the Netherlands. Total shore length is 125 km.</p><br>
<p>The park consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde, but also includes some mud flats, meadows and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling and bird watching.</p><br>
<p>The Pool of Siloam  was a rock-cut pool on the southern slope of the City of David, the original site of Jerusalem, located outside the walls of the Old City to the southeast. The pool was fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, carried there by two aqueducts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Initial Construction</h3><br>
<p>The Pool of Siloam was first built during the reign of Hezekiah (715–687/6 BCE), to provide a water supply inside the City to protect it from a siege. The pool was fed by the newly constructed Siloam tunnel. Prior to this, the Gihon Spring had emptied in a large open basin at its source, before being conveyed to the City by an aqueduct. This basin is sometimes known as the Upper Pool. This aqueduct was very vulnerable to attackers, so, under threat from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, Hezekiah sealed up the old outlet of the Gihon Spring and the Upper Pool, and built the underground Siloam tunnel in place of the aqueduct. During this period the Pool of Siloam was therefore sometimes known as the Lower Pool. It seems likely that during the Governorship of Nehemiah (from 445 BCE), the pool was also known as the King&#39;s Pool.</p><br>
<h3>Second Temple Period</h3><br>
<p>The pool was reconstructed no earlier than the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), although it is not clear whether this pool was in the same location as Hezekiah&#39;s pool — if so, all traces of the earlier construction have been destroyed. The pool remained in use during the time of Jesus. According to the Gospel of John, Jesus sent "a man blind from birth" in order to complete his healing. As a freshwater reservoir, the pool would have been a major gathering place for ancient Jews making religious pilgrimages to the city. Some scholars, influenced by Jesus commanding the blind man to wash in the pool, suggest that it was probably used as a mikvah (ritual bath). However, mikvahs are usually much smaller in size, and if the pool were a mikvah, it would be the largest ever found by a substantial margin. Yoel Elitzur has proposed that the pool was used for swimming rather than ritual immersion.</p><br>
<p>The pool was rediscovered by Ir David Foundation workers, in the autumn of 2004, during excavation work for a sewer. Archaeologists Eli Shukron and Ronny Reich (working with the Israel Antiquities Authority) accompanied by Ori Orbach from the Israel Nature and Parks Authority uncovered stone steps, and it became obvious that these steps were likely to have been part of the Second Temple period pool. Excavations commenced and confirmed the initial supposition; the find was formally announced on August 9, 2005, and received substantial international media attention. The excavations also revealed that the pool was 225 feet wide, and that steps existed on at least three sides of the pool. A portion of this pool remains unexcavated, as the land above it is owned by a nearby Greek Orthodox church and is occupied by an orchard known as the Kings Garden (compare ). The pool is not perfectly rectangular, but a soft trapezoid. There are three sets of five steps, two leading to a platform, before the bottom is reached, and it has been suggested that the steps were designed to accommodate various water levels. The pool is stone-lined, but underneath, there is evidence of an earlier version that was merely plastered (to help it retain water). Coins from the reign of Alexander Jannaeus were found embedded in the plaster lining of the pool, and therefore provide a secure earliest date for the pools (re-)construction.</p><br>
<p>The pool was destroyed and covered after the First Jewish–Roman War in the year 70. Dating was indicated by a number of coins discovered on the stones of the patio near the pool to the north, all from the days of the Great Revolt. The latest coin is dated with "4 years to the day of the Great Revolt", meaning the year 69. In the years following the destruction, winter rains washed alluvium from the hills down to the valley and down the slopes of Mount Zion to the west of the pool; the pool was filled with silt layers (up to 4 m in some places) until it was covered completely.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Period</h3><br>
<p>Roman sources mention a Shrine of the Four Nymphs (Tetranymphon), a nymphaeum built by Hadrian during the construction of Aelia Capitolina in 135 and mentioned in Byzantine works such as the 7th-century Chronicon Paschale; other nymphaea built by Hadrian, such as that at Sagalassos, are very similar. It is unlikely that this shrine was built on the site of the Second Temple Pool of Siloam, but it may have been a precursor to the Byzantine reconstruction, below.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine Period</h3><br>
<p>In the 5th century, a pool was constructed at the end of the Siloam Tunnel, at the behest of Empress Aelia Eudocia. This pool survives to the present day, surrounded on all sides by a high stone wall with an arched entrance to Hezekiah&#39;s Tunnel. This pool is around 70 yards from the Second Temple Pool of Siloam, and is significantly smaller. Until the discovery of the Second Temple pool of Siloam, this pool was wrongly thought to be the pool described in the New Testament and Second Temple sources.</p><br>
<p>Perga or Perge  was an ancient Anatolian city in modern Turkey, once the capital of Pamphylia Secunda, now in Antalya province on the southwestern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Today, it is a large site of ancient ruins 15 km east of Antalya on the coastal plain. An acropolis located there dates back to the Bronze Age.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Perga was an ancient and important city of Pamphylia, between the rivers Catarrhactes and Cestrus (Turkish Aksu Çayı).</p><br>
<p>A treaty between the Hittite Great King Tudhaliya IV and his vassal, the king of Tarhuntassa, defined the latter&#39;s western border at the city "Parha" and the "Kastaraya River". The river is assumed to be the classical Cestrus. West of Parha were the "Lukka Lands". Parha likely spoke a late Luwian dialect like Lycian and that of the neo-Hittite kingdoms.</p><br>
<p>Perge returns to history as a Pamphylian Greek city, and with Pamphylia came under successive rule by Persians, Athenians, and Persians again. Alexander the Great, after quitting Phaselis, occupied Perge with a part of his army. The road between these two towns is described as long and difficult. Alexander&#39;s rule was followed by the Diadochi empire of the Seleucids, then the Romans.</p><br>
<p>Perge gained renown for the worship of Artemis, whose temple stood on a hill outside the town, and in whose honour annual festivals were celebrated. The coins of Perge represent both the goddess and her temple.</p><br>
<p>In 46 A.D., according to the Acts of the Apostles, St. Paul journeyed to Perga, from there continued on to Antiocheia in Pisidia, then returned to Perga where he preached the word of God (Acts 14:25). Then he left the city and went to Attaleia.</p><br>
<p>As the Cestrus silted up over the late Roman era, Perga declined as a secular city. In the first half of the 4th century, during the reign of Constantine the Great (324-337), Perga became an important centre of Christianity, which soon became the official religion of the Roman Empire. The city retained its status as a Christian centre in the 5th and 6th centuries.</p><br>
<h3>Ecclesiastical history</h3><br>
<p>St. Paul the Apostle and his, companion St. Barnabas, twice visited Perga as recorded in the biblical book, the Acts of the Apostles, during their first missionary journey, where they "preached the word" before heading for and sailing from Attalia (modern-day Antalya city), 15 km to the southwest, to Antioch.</p><br>
<p>Paul and Barnabas came to Perge during their first missionary journey, but probably stayed there only a short time, and do not seem to have preached there; it was there that John Mark left Paul to return to Jerusalem. On his return from Pisidia, Paul preached at Perge.</p><br>
<p>St. Matrona of Perge of the 6th century was a female saint known for temporarily cross-dressing to avoid her abusive husband. She also is known for opposing the Monophysite policy of the emperor Anastasios I. Matrona hid in the monastery of St. Bassion as the enuch Babylos. Once revealed, she was sent to a woman’s monastery where she was head of the convent. She was famous for her miraculous gift of healing. She went on to found a nunnery in Constantinople. St Matrona died at the age of 100. Her life was told through a vita prima whose author and exact time period remains a mystery.</p><br>
<p>The Greek Notitiae episcopatuum mentions the city as metropolis of Pamphylia Secunda until the 13th century. Le Quien gives the names of 11 of its bishops: Epidaurus, present at the Council of Ancyra in 312; Callicles at the First Council of Nicaea in 325; Berenianus, at Constantinople (426); Epiphanius at the Second Council of Ephesus (449), at the First Council of Chalcedon (451), and a signatory of the letter from the bishops of the province to Emperor Leo (458); Hilarianus, at a council at Constantinople in 536; Eulogius, at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553; Apergius, condemned as a Monothelite at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680; John, at the Trullan council in 692; Sisinnius Pastillas about 754 (an iconoclast who was condemned at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787); Constans, at the same council of that condemned his predecessor; John, at the Council of Constantinople of 869–70.</p><br>
<p>No longer a residential, the bishopric is included in the Catholic Church&#39;s list of titular sees.</p><br>
<p>Perga remained inhabited until the Seljuks.</p><br>
<h2>Remains</h2><br>
<p>Perga is today an archaeological site and a tourist attraction. Ancient Perge, one of the chief cities of Pamphylia, was situated between the Rivers Catarrhactes (Düden Nehri) and Cestrus (Aksu), 60 stadia (about 11.1 km) from the mouth of the latter; the site is in the modern Turkish village of Murtana on the Suridjik sou, a tributary of the Cestrus, formerly in the Ottoman vilayet of Konya. Its ruins include a theatre, a palaestra, a temple of Artemis and two churches. The temple of Artemis was located outside the town.</p><br>
<p>Another big ancient city in the area is Selge, Pisidia, located about 20km to the northeast.</p><br>
<h2>Notables</h2><br>
<p>Perga&#39;s most celebrated ancient inhabitant, the mathematician Apollonius (c.262 BC – c.190 BC), lived and worked there. He wrote a series of eight books describing a family of curves known as conic sections, comprising the circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.</p><br>
<p>The Mount of Olives or Mount Olivet  is a mountain ridge east of and adjacent to Jerusalem&#39;s Old City. It is named for the olive groves that once covered its slopes. The southern part of the Mount was the Silwan necropolis, attributed to the ancient Judean kingdom. The Mount has been used as a Jewish cemetery for over 3,000 years and holds approximately 150,000 graves, making it central in the tradition of Jewish cemeteries. Several key events in the life of Jesus, as related in the Gospels, took place on the Mount of Olives, and in the Acts of the Apostles it is described as the place from which Jesus ascended to heaven. Because of its association with both Jesus and Mary, the Mount has been a site of Christian worship since ancient times and is today a major site of pilgrimage for Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants.</p><br>
<p>Much of the top of the hill is occupied by At-Tur, a former village and now a neighbourhood of East Jerusalem with a majority-Muslim population.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>The Mount of Olives is one of three peaks of a mountain ridge which runs for 3.5 km just east of the Old City across the Kidron Valley, in this area called the Valley of Josaphat. The peak to its north is Mount Scopus, at 826 m, while the peak to its south is the Mount of Corruption, at 747 m. The highest point on the Mount of Olives is At-Tur, at 818 m. The ridge acts as a watershed, and its eastern side is the beginning of the Judean Desert.</p><br>
<p>The ridge is formed of oceanic sedimentary rock from the Late Cretaceous, and contains a soft chalk and a hard flint. While the chalk is easily quarried, it is not a suitable strength for construction, which is why the Mount was never built up and instead features many man-made burial caves.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From Biblical times until the present, Jews have been buried on the Mount of Olives. The necropolis on the southern ridge, the location of the modern village of Silwan, was the burial place of Jerusalem&#39;s most important citizens in the period of the Biblical kings.</p><br>
<p>The religious ceremony marking the start of a new month was held on the Mount of Olives in the days of the Second Temple. Roman soldiers from the 10th Legion camped on the Mount during the Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD. After the destruction of the Second Temple, Jews celebrated the festival of Sukkot on the Mount of Olives. They made pilgrimages to the Mount of Olives because it was 80 meters higher than the Temple Mount and offered a panoramic view of the Temple site. It became a traditional place for lamenting the Temples destruction, especially on Tisha BAv.</p><br>
<p>Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin asked to be buried on the Mount of Olives near the grave of Etzel member Meir Feinstein, rather than Mount Herzl national cemetery.</p><br>
<h3>Status since 1948</h3><br>
<p>The armistice agreement signed by Israel and Jordan following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War called for the establishment of a Special Committee to negotiate developments including "free access to the holy sites and cultural institutions and use of the cemetery on the Mount of Olives". However, during the 19 years the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank lasted, the committee was not formed. Non-Israeli Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the Mount, but Jews of all countries and most non-Jewish Israeli citizens were barred from entering Jordan and therefore were unable to travel to the area.</p><br>
<p>By the end of 1949, and throughout the Jordanian rule of the site, some Arab residents uprooted tombstones and plowed the land in the cemeteries and an estimated 38,000 tombstones were damaged in total. During this period, four roads were paved through the cemeteries, in the process destroying graves including those of famous persons. Jordan&#39;s King Hussein permitted the construction of the Intercontinental Hotel at the summit of the Mount of Olives together with a road that cut through the cemetery which destroyed hundreds of Jewish graves, some from the First Temple Period. Graves were also demolished for parking lots and a filling station and were even used in latrines at a Jordanian Army barracks. However, the United Nations did not condemn the Jordanian government for these actions.</p><br>
<p>Following the 1967 Six-Day War and the Israeli occupation of East Jerusalem, its government began restoration work and re-opened the cemetery for burials. Israel&#39;s 1980 unilateral annexation of East Jerusalem was condemned as a violation of international law and ruled null and void by the UN Security Council in UNSC Resolution 478.</p><br>
<h2>Recent events</h2><br>
<p>On 6 November 2010, an international watch-committee was set up by Diaspora Jews with the aim of reversing the desecration of the Jewish cemetery. According to one of the founders, the initiative was triggered by witnessing tombstones that were wrecked with "the kind of maliciousness that defies the imagination."</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<h3>Old Testament references</h3><br>
<p>The Mount of Olives is first mentioned in connection with David&#39;s flight from Absalom</p><br>
<p>(II Samuel 15:30): "And David went up by the ascent of the Mount of Olives, and wept as he went up." The ascent was probably east of the City of David, near the village of Silwan. The sacred character of the mount is alluded to in the Ezekiel (11:23): "And the glory of the Lord went up from the midst of the city, and stood upon the mountain which is on the east side of the city."</p><br>
<p>The biblical designation Mount of Corruption, or in Hebrew Har HaMashchit (I Kings 11:7–8), derives from the idol worship there, begun by King Solomon building altars to the gods of his Moabite and Ammonite wives on the southern peak, "on the mountain which is before (east of) Jerusalem" (1 Kings 11:7), just outside the limits of the holy city. This site was known for idol worship throughout the First Temple period, until king of Judah, Josiah, finally destroyed "the high places that were before Jerusalem, to the right of Har HaMashchit..."(II Kings 23:13)</p><br>
<p>An apocalyptic prophecy in the Book of Zechariah states that YHWH will stand on the Mount of Olives and the mountain will split in two, with one half shifting north and one half shifting south (Zechariah 14:4). According to the Masoretic Text, people will flee through this newly formed valley to a place called Azal (Zechariah 14:5). The Septuagint (LXX) has a different reading of Zechariah 14:5 stating that a valley will be blocked up as it was blocked up during the earthquake during King Uzziahs reign. Jewish historian Flavius Josephus mentions in Antiquities of the Jews that the valley in the area of the Kings Gardens was blocked up by landslide rubble during Uzziah&#39;s earthquake. Israeli geologists Wachs and Levitte identified the remnant of a large landslide on the Mount of Olives directly adjacent to this area. Based on geographic and linguistic evidence, Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, a 19th-century linguist and archeologist in Palestine, theorized that the valley directly adjacent to this landslide is Azal. This evidence accords with the LXX reading of Zechariah 14:5 which states that the valley will be blocked up as far as Azal. The valley he identified (which is now known as Wady Yasul in Arabic, and Nahal Etzel in Hebrew) lies south of both Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives.</p><br>
<h3>Burial and resurrection</h3><br>
<p>Many Jews have wanted to be buried on the Mount of Olives since antiquity, based on the Jewish tradition (from the Biblical verse Zechariah 14:4) that when the Messiah comes, the resurrection of the dead will begin there. There are an estimated 150,000 graves on the Mount, including tombs traditionally associated with Zechariah and Absalom. On the upper slope, the traditional Tomb of the Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi is situated. Notable rabbis buried on the mount include Chaim ibn Attar and others from the 15th-century to present.</p><br>
<h3>New Testament references</h3><br>
<p>The Mount of Olives is frequently mentioned in the New Testament (; 26:30, etc.) as part of the route from Jerusalem to Bethany and the place where Jesus stood when he wept over Jerusalem (an event known as Flevit super illam in Latin).</p><br>
<p>Jesus is said to have spent time on the mount, teaching and prophesying to his disciples (Matthew 24–25), including the Olivet discourse, returning after each day to rest (Luke 21:37, and John 8:1 in the additional section of John&#39;s Gospel known as the Pericope Adulterae), and also coming there on the night of his betrayal. At the foot of the Mount of Olives lies the Garden of Gethsemane. The New Testament tells how Jesus and his disciples sang together – "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives" Gospel of Matthew 26:30. Jesus ascended to heaven from the Mount of Olives according to Acts 1:9–12.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Landmarks on the top of the Mount of Olives include the Augusta Victoria Hospital with the Lutheran Church of the Ascension and its highly visible 50-metre bell tower, the Mosque or Chapel of the Ascension, the Russian Orthodox Church of the Ascension with its tall white bell tower, the Church of the Pater Noster, and the Seven Arches Hotel. On the western slope there are the historic Jewish cemetery, the so-called Tomb of the Prophets, the Catholic Church of Dominus Flevit, and the Russian Orthodox Church of Mary Magdalene. At the foot of the mount, where it meets the Kidron Valley, there is the Garden of Gethsemane with the Church of all Nations. Within the Kidron Valley itself are the Tomb of the Virgin Mary, the Grotto of Gethsemane, and the nearby tomb of the medieval historian Mujir ed-Din, and further south are the tombs of Absalom (Hebrew name: Yad Avshalom), the Hezir priestly family and of Zechariah. At the northern margin of Mount Olivet stand the Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center with the Orson Hyde Memorial Garden and the Jewish settlement of Beit Orot, bordering on the Tzurim Valley which contains the Temple Mount Sifting Project. What lays north of here belongs to Mount Scopus. On the south-eastern slope of the Mount of Olives lies the Palestinian Arab village of al-Eizariya, identified with the ancient village of Bethany mentioned in the New Testament; a short distance from the village centre, towards the top of the mount, is the traditional site of Bethphage, marked by a Franciscan church.</p><br>
<h3>Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center</h3><br>
<p>The construction of the Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center for Near Eastern Studies, better known locally as the Mormon University, owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) near the valley separating the Mount of Olives from Mount Scopus, initially sparked controversy due to concerns that the Mormons would engage in missionary activities. After the Mormons pledged not to proselytize in Israel, work on the building was allowed to proceed.</p><br>
<p>Moriah  is the name given to a mountainous region by the Book of Genesis, in which context it is the location of the sacrifice of Isaac. The Vulgate renders the location specified by God for the sacrifice as terram Visionis, traditionally rendered "land of Vision" in Catholic translations. Through association with the biblical Mount Moriah , Mount Moriah has traditionally been interpreted as the name of the specific mountain at which this occurred, although this identification is typically rejected by scholarship.</p><br>
<p>Muslims believe the historical mount is Marwah in Arabic, as mentioned in the Quran, located close to the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. There has been an historical account of rams horns preserved in the Kaaba until the year 683, which are believed to be the remains of the sacrifice of Ishmael.</p><br>
<h2>Biblical references</h2><br>
<p>In the Hebrew Bible, the name Moriah occurs twice. Tradition has interpreted these as the same place:</p><br>
<p>Genesis: "Then God said, Take your son, your only son, whom you love—Isaac—and go to the region of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering on a mountain I will show you."</p><br>
<p>2 Chronicles: "Then Solomon began to build the temple of the in Jerusalem on Mount Moriah, where the had appeared to his father David. It was on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, the place provided by David."</p><br>
<h2>Speculation and debate</h2><br>
<h3>Religious views</h3><br>
<p>In the book of Chronicles it is reported that the location of Araunahs threshing floor is on "Mount Moriah" and that the Temple of Solomon was built over Araunahs threshing floor. This has led to the classical rabbinical supposition that this is at the peak of Moriah.</p><br>
<p>There is debate as to whether the two references (Genesis 22:2 and Chronicles 3:1) are correctly translated as the same word. For example, in the LXX, these verses are translated as:</p><br>
<p>Genesis 22:2: "And he said, Take thy son, the beloved one, whom thou hast loved—Isaac, and go into the high land (Koine Greek: εἰς τὴν γῆν τὴν ὑψηλὴν), and offer him there for a whole-burnt-offering on one of the mountains which I will tell thee of"</p><br>
<p>2 Chronicles 3:1: "And Solomon began to build the house of the Lord in Jerusalem in the mount of Amoria, where the Lord appeared to his father David, in the place which David had prepared in the threshing-floor of Orna the Jebusite."</p><br>
<p>Some interpretations of a biblical passage concerning Melchizedek, king of Salem, would indicate Jerusalem was already a city with a priest at the time of Abraham, and thus is unlikely to have been founded after this, at the site of a sacrifice made by Abraham in the wilderness. However the view that Salem refers to Jerusalem (in David&#39;s time, Jebus) and not peace (shalome, shelomo) is of heavy debate between many sects of Jews and Christians.</p><br>
<p>In consequence of these traditions, Classical Rabbinical Literature theorised that the name was a (linguistically corrupted) reference to the Temple, suggesting translations like the teaching-place (referring to the Sanhedrin that met there), the place of fear (referring to the supposed fear that non-Israelites would have at the Temple), the place of myrrh (referring to the spices burnt as incense). Targum Pseudo-Jonathan interprets the name as land of worship, while the Samaritan Targum regards it as being land of vision.</p><br>
<h3>Scholarly views</h3><br>
<p>Most modern biblical scholars, however, regard the name as a reference to the Amorites, having lost the initial a via aphesis; the name is thus interpreted as meaning land of the Amorites. This agrees with the Septuagint, where, for example, 2 Chronicles 3:1 refers to the location as Ἀμωρία &ndash; Amōriā. This would give it the same etymological root as Hamor, a person&#39;s name in the narrative at Genesis 34 which concerns Shechem. Some scholars also identify it with Moreh, the location near Shechem at which Abraham built an altar, according to Genesis 12:6. Hence a number of scholars believe that Moriah refers to a hill near Shechem, supporting the Samaritan belief that the near-sacrifice of Isaac occurred on Mount Gerizim &ndash; a location near Shechem.</p><br>
<h3>Correlation Isaac-Jesus</h3><br>
<p>Some scholars reference the conversation Jesus had with the Samaritan woman at the well, where He stated that the Samaritans were inaccurate in their knowledge of the worship of God (John 4:21–24). Acknowledging the intended similarity between the sacrifice of Isaac and the crucifixion of Jesus, they make the connection that Moriah would be the same location where Jews made sacrifices at the Temple of Solomon. Isaac carrying the wood for the sacrificial fire as Jesus carried the cross; the reference in Hebrews 11:17–19 to Abraham believing God could raise Isaac from the dead; Isaac being Abrahams "only" son and Jesus being Gods only begotten Son; all make the correlation between the two events point to Moriah being the Temple site.</p><br>
<h2>Muslim views</h2><br>
<p>From a Muslim point of view, the well-known site of Mount Marwah (Arabic مروة), the hill just outside the perimeter of the Kaaba in Mecca, may be identified with the biblical Moriah (Hebrew מוריה) from. It is irrelevant from a Muslim point of view that the Hebrew Bible identifies the Temple Mount in Jerusalem as Mount Moriah, as early in the biblical narrative as the chapter dedicated to the construction of the First Temple in the book of Second Chronicles (see ), around 1,700 years predating Islam&#39;s account.</p><br>
<h3>The sacrifice story in Islam</h3><br>
<p>The Islamic version differs from the Bible: in Islamic sources, when Abraham (Ibrahim) tells his son about the vision, his son accepts to be sacrificed for fulfillment of God&#39;s command and no binding to the altar occurred.</p><br>
<p>The Quran states that when Abraham asked for a righteous son, God granted him one possessing forbearance; this son is not however named directly in the Quran. When he was able to walk and work, Abraham saw a vision about sacrificing him. When he told his son about it, he accepted to fulfill the command of God in the vision. When they both had submitted their will to God and were ready for the sacrifice, God told Abraham he had fulfilled the vision, provided him with a ram to sacrifice instead, and He also promised to reward Abraham. The next two verses state that God also granted Abraham the righteous son Isaac and promised more rewards.</p><br>
<p>Muslim scholars have endorsed the belief that it was the first-born son Ismail, not Isaac, who was asked to be sacrificed in the vision and that the second one, Isaac, was born later as one of the rewards for Abraham&#39;s fulfillment of his vision.</p><br>
<p>Among early Muslim scholars, however, there was a dispute over the identity of the son. The argument of those early scholars who believed it was Isaac rather than Ishmael (notably Ibn Ḳutayba, and al-Ṭabarī) was that "God&#39;s perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac" referred to his making Abraham his friend and saving him from the burning bush, and to his rescuing Isaac. On the contrary, the other parties held that the promise to Sarah of a son, Isaac, and a grandson, Jacob, excluded the possibility of a premature death of Isaac.</p><br>
<p>Muslims consider that visions experienced by prophets are revelations from God, and as such it was a divine order to Abraham. The entire episode of the sacrifice is regarded as a trial of God for Abraham and his son, and both are seen as having passed the test by submitting to God and showing their awareness that God is the Owner and Giver of all that we have and cherish, including life and offspring. The submission of Abraham and his son is celebrated and commemorated by Muslims on the days of Eid al-Adha. During the festival, those who can afford and the ones in the pilgrimage sacrifice a ram, cow, sheep or a camel. Part of the sacrifice meat is eaten by the household and remaining is distributed to the neighbors and the needy. The festival marks the end of the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.</p><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos  is a chain of 122 islands, and associated coral reefs, in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Australia. Nominally located at 28&deg;43&prime;S latitude, 113&deg;47&prime;E longitude, it lies about eighty kilometres  west of Geraldton, Western Australia. It is the southernmost true coral reef in the Indian Ocean, and one of the highest latitude reef systems in the world. It is one of the worlds most important seabird breeding sites, and is the centre of Western Australias largest single-species fishery, the western rock lobster fishery. It has a small seasonal population of fishermen, and a limited number of tourists are permitted for day trips, but most of the land area is off limits as conservation habitat. It is well known as the site of numerous shipwrecks, the most famous being the Dutch ships Batavia, which was wrecked in 1629, and Zeewijk, wrecked in 1727.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos is made up of three island groups, the Wallabi Group, Easter Group and Pelsaert Group.</p><br>
<p>The most northerly group, the Wallabi Group, consists of an island clump about 17 kilometres (10 mi) by 10 kilometres (6 mi), and also takes in the outlying North Island, located 14 kilometres to the northwest. The main islands of the Wallabi Group are North Island, West Wallabi Island, East Wallabi Island and Beacon Island. The group is best known for the shipwreck of the Batavia on Morning Reef near Beacon Island in 1629, and the subsequent mutiny and massacre that took place among the marooned survivors.</p><br>
<p>The Easter Group lies to the southeast of the Wallabi Group, from which it is separated by a 9 kilometres (5 mi) wide channel named Middle Channel. It is about 20 kilometres by 12 kilometres, and consists of a number of islands including Rat Island, Wooded Island, Morley Island, Suomi Island and Alexander Island.</p><br>
<p>Further to the southeast, across Zeewijk Channel, lies the Pelsaert Group, the most southerly true coral reef in the Indian Ocean. The main islands of this group are Middle Island, Square Island, Long Island, Pelsaert Island, Basile Island and the Mangrove Group. A great many ships have been wrecked in the Pelsaert Group, most notably the Zeewijk, which was wrecked on the Half Moon Reef in 1727, the survivors staying on Gun Island for some time afterwards. Other wrecks include the Ocean Queen, wrecked on the Half Moon Reef in 1842; the Ben Ledi, wrecked off Pelsaert Island in 1879; and the Windsor, wrecked on the Half Moon Reef in 1908.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery and naming</h3><br>
<p>According to the surviving historical record, the first sighting of the Houtman Abrolhos by Europeans was by the Dutch VOC ships Dordrecht and Amsterdam in 1619, only three years after Dirk Hartog made the first authenticated sighting of what is now Western Australia, and only 13 years after the first authenticated voyage to Australia, that of the Duyfken in 1606. Discovery of the islands was credited to Frederick de Houtman, Captain-General of the Dordrecht, as it was Houtman who later wrote of the discovery in a letter to the directors of the Dutch East India Company:</p><br>
<p>The word Abrolhos is of Portuguese origin, making the Houtman Abrolhos one of only two Australian places with a Portuguese name, the other being Pedra Branca in Tasmania. The term is commonly reported to be a contraction of the Portuguese expression abre os olhos ("open the eyes") or abri vossos olhos ("keep your eyes open"), but this has been shown to be a false etymology. In the Portuguese language of the time, abrolhos meant "spiked obstructions", and served not only as a word for offshore reefs, but also as their word for caltrops and chevaux de frise. To Spanish ears, however, the word sounded like abre ojos ("open your eyes"), so they imputed this meaning, and this false etymology was later borrowed by English, Dutch and French writers.</p><br>
<p>Why Houtman named the islands using a Portuguese word remains a subject of debate. John Forsyth states that the islands are named after the Abrolhos Archipelago off the east coast of Brazil, which was discovered and named by Portuguese navigators early in the 16th century. This position is supported by the fact that Houtman was familiar with the Abrolhos Archipelago, having sailed through it in 1598. becoming by Houtman&#39;s time a Dutch loan word for offshore reefs. Finally, it has been argued by proponents of the theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia that the Portuguese name is evidence that the islands were charted by Portuguese navigators in the 16th century. Kenneth McIntyre, for example, claimed that Houtman was in possession of Portuguese maps of the west coast of Australia, and that he named the islands "abrolhos" in accordance with the name on his map. Charting of the islands was previously credited to Jorge de Menezes, but the notion that Menezes visited Australia is now thoroughly discredited, and no other candidate has been proffered.</p><br>
<p>The primary piece of evidence for the claim of Portuguese priority is the 16th century Dieppe maps, some of which are said to show the west coast of Australia, including an island at the position of the Houtman Abrolhos. This island is unlabelled on most of the Dieppe maps, but on Pierre Desceliers&#39; 1550 map, it is labelled Arenes. In 1895, George Collingridge suggested that Arenes was a corruption of Abrolhos, but this was mocked by Heeres in 1898, and according to J. S. Battye "this suggestion can scarcely be regarded seriously. It certainly does not in any way add to the merit of the Portuguese claim".</p><br>
<p>Setting aside the Portuguese claims, the Houtman Abrolhos first appear on a published map in 1622, on a little-known portolan by Hessel Gerritsz. They are first named in print in Gerritsz 1627 map Caert vant Landt van dEendracht, where they bear the label Fr. Houtmans abrolhos. On a map produced by him the following year, they are labelled Houtman&#39;s Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>On British Admiralty charts, the islands are labelled Houtman&#39;s Rocks.</p><br>
<h3>Wreck of the Batavia</h3><br>
<p>In 1629 some of the islands were the scene of a spectacular shipwreck and mutiny. The Dutch ship Batavia under the command of Francisco Pelsaert ran aground on her maiden voyage, and Pelsaert and some men went in an open boat to the town of Batavia (now Jakarta) to get help. A group of the men who stayed on some of the islets decided to terrorise and massacre many others, including women. When Pelsaert returned, many of the culprits were executed.</p><br>
<h3>Wreck of the Zeewijk</h3><br>
<p>The Zeewijk was the last of the four Dutch East Indiamen to be wrecked on the west coast of Australia. The Ship&#39;s Council having made the inexplicable decision to disregard sailing orders and actually seek out the west coast of Australia, the ship ran onto the Half Moon Reef at about 7:30 pm on 9 June 1727. It did not break up immediately, and the heavy swell made evacuation impossible until 18 June. The longboat was launched on that day, and the crew and stores were thereafter gradually transferred to nearby Gun Island. Later, the men landed ten chests of money, containing 315,836 guilders and weighing a total of three tons.</p><br>
<p>The crew of the Zeewijk would be marooned in the Pelsaert Group for ten months, during which time they lived off seals, seabirds, eggs, and victuals salvaged from the wreck. They obtained some water from rainfall, but were forced to explore throughout the group in search of further supplies. A great many men died on the islands, including two boys who were accused of sodomy and marooned on separate islands of the Mangrove Group.</p><br>
<p>On 10 July the longboat, fitted for a voyage and crewed with eleven men, was sent to Batavia to obtain help. It never arrived there, and nothing is known of its fate. Four months later the castaways began building a 60 ft boat, sufficient to carry all the men and the money chests. Completed in March 1728 and affectionately named the Sloepie ("little sloop"), it was the first ocean-going vessel built in Australian history. On 26 March 1728, the surviving men set sail for Batavia, arriving in Sunda Strait late the following month.</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>During Admiralty surveys of the north west coast in 1840, crew from HMS Beagle discovered a brass gun of about three pounds calibre, an iron swivel on which paint still adhered as well as numerous other artefacts signifying European occupation, on the largest island in the Pelsart Group. The commander, John Clements Wickham, named the place Gun Island and the passage between the Easter and Pelsart Groups, Zeewijk Channel. Later during the 19th century many islets were used by men collecting guano.</p><br>
<p>A lease to mine rock phosphate on the islands was obtained by Charles Broadhurst in 1884. After surveying the area he constructed a plant and had over 40 Malay workers mining and processing the phosphate for export. Over 48,000 tonnes was shipped between 1884 and 1896.</p><br>
<h2>Tenure, governance and management</h2><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos is Australian territory. There is no dispute about this, although it has been suggested that Australia claims the island chain under the UNCLOS by extending their continental baseline to encompass it, a breach of Article 7 of the Convention.</p><br>
<p>The islands are a part of Western Australia. They are part of the Electoral district of Geraldton, and the City of Greater Geraldton. Management is vested in the Department of Fisheries.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Some of the islands are considered to be remnants of the mainland isolated by rising sea level during the last 8,000 to 10,000 years. Others were more recently formed from coral rubble.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<h3>Bathymetry</h3><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos lies in the Indian Ocean about 60 kilometres (40 mi) off the coast of Western Australia, near the edge of Australia&#39;s continental shelf. At less than 50 metres (160 ft) deep, the shelf is quite shallow. It is also fairly level, the depth increasing to the west at a modest gradient of about 1.3 metres per kilometre (7 ft/mi). About five kilometres (3 mi) to the west of the Houtman Abrolhos lies the shelf break, beyond which the seabed falls away much more steeply, averaging around 50 metres per kilometre (260 ft/mi).</p><br>
<p>The islands of each island group arise from a single carbonate platform, so the waters within an island group are mostly shallow. The channels between groups, however, are 40 to 50 metres deep, and therefore no impediment to the exchange of offshore and inshore waters.</p><br>
<h3>Currents</h3><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos lies almost directly in the path of the Leeuwin Current, which draws warm, low-saline water of tropical origin southwards along the coast of Western Australia. This current flows all year round, but is strongest during southern hemisphere winter months. In general the Leeuwin Current runs along the shelf break, and thus passes close by the western edge of the Abrolhos. It meanders, however, sometimes passing well out to sea, and sometimes passing directly through the island chain, bathing it in warm tropical water; so the Abrolhos can experience currents from any direction, even when the Leeuwin Current is flowing strongly.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most other major ocean currents, there is no large-scale coastal upwelling associated with the Leeuwin Current. There is limited evidence for some sporadic, localised upwelling in the vicinity of the Abrolhos, but if so it appears to have little effect on the extremely low levels of nutrients in the water.</p><br>
<h3>Temperature and salinity</h3><br>
<p>Sea temperature at the islands varies according to a diurnal cycle, with the water at its coldest between six and eight in the morning, and at its warmest between three and four in the afternoon. In summer the daily temperature range is around 1 °C (2 °F); in winter it is about half that.</p><br>
<p>There is also an annual cycle, with sea temperature varying by a little less than 4 °C (7 °F) over the year, peaking at nearly 24 °C (75 °F) in March, and falling to around 20 °C (68 °F) in September. This variability is much less than in nearby coastal waters, which reaches a similar peak in summer but drops as low as 18 °C (64 °F) in winter. The relatively low variability in sea temperatures at the Abrolhos is largely attributable to the Leeuwin Current, which bathes the islands in warm tropical water during winter months.</p><br>
<p>A similar annual pattern occurs in salinity. There is a clear seasonal variation, with values ranging from a summer high of around 35.7 ppt, to a winter low of around 35.4 ppt. As with water temperatures, the variability in salinity is much smaller than in coastal waters, where summer salinity reaches 36.4 ppt. This difference is partly due to the low-salinity waters of the Leeuwin Current, but there are a number of other factors involved, including high evaporation of coastal waters in summer.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures can also vary substantially from year to year. Annual mean temperatures vary by as much as 1 °C (2 °F); with cooler years usually cooler throughout the year. There is evidence that annual mean temperatures are related to El Niño-Southern Oscillation events.</p><br>
<p>The water column is generally well-mixed, with no evidence of a significant halocline or thermocline. Mean differences in water temperature between sea surface and sea bed range from only half a degree (Celsius; 1 °F) in summer to almost zero in winter, and differences in salinity are very small even when the Leeuwin Current is at its strongest.</p><br>
<h3>Sea levels</h3><br>
<p>As with the rest of southwestern Australia, tides at the Houtman Abrolhos are small and irregular. There is little tidal data available for the islands, but what there is accords very closely with the data for Geraldton. Geraldton tides follow a diurnal pattern, with maximum tidal ranges of around 1-metre (3 ft).</p><br>
<p>Mean sea levels at Geraldton show seasonal fluctuations, being higher in winter when the Leeuwin Current is at its peak. There are also variations from year to year, which are strongly associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. Apparently, ENSO events induce a weaker Leeuwin Current, which results in lower sea levels.</p><br>
<p>There is no published information on wave heights in the Abrolhos. In the open ocean, waves are typically a little over two metres high all year round. Nearer the mainland, they are usually less than 1.2 metres, with a calmer period in March and April, and another in October and November.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The islands have a Mediterranean climate, with warm dry summers and cooler, wet winters. Mean temperatures range from 9.3 °C to 19.5 °C in July, and from 19.1 °C to 32.4 °C in February. These temperatures have a substantially smaller range than on the mainland: the summer temperature is typically a degree cooler, while winter temperatures are a good deal warmer. This is due to the influence of the ocean, and to the Leeuwin Current.</p><br>
<p>86% of the rain falls between April and September; on average there are 89 raindays, resulting in 469 millimetres of rain. The wettest month is June, when over 100 millimetres typically falls. In contrast, only about 70 millimetres can be expected to fall between October and March.</p><br>
<p>It is nearly always windy. During summer a high pressure ridge lies to the south, causing persistent winds from the southeast or southwest, at speeds exceeding 17 knots (31 km/h) almost half the time. During autumn and winter, the ridge moves northwards, increasing the atmospheric pressure over the islands, resulting in highly variable winds. Winter tends to produce both the strongest gales and the most frequent periods of calm.</p><br>
<p>In addition to these winds, there is daily pattern of land breezes in the morning, followed by the onset of south-westerly sea breezes in the afternoon. This pattern is caused by temperature differences between the land and the ocean, and is not as strong in the Houtman Abrolhos as on the mainland, but is present nonetheless.</p><br>
<p>Three classes of storm have been identified for the region. Brief squalls may occur between December and April. A tropical cyclone occurs in the area about once in three years, between January and April; these may generate extremely high wind speeds that are potentially destructive. During winter, extra-tropical cyclones sometimes pass south of Geraldton, generating winter gales with gusts of up to 35 metres per second, the wind direction from the northwest initially, then gradually moving around to southerly.</p><br>
<h2>Biogeography</h2><br>
<p>Under the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA), the islands of the Houtman Abrolhos fall within the Geraldton Hills subregion of the Geraldton Sandplains region. The main biogeographic significance of the islands is their isolation, allowing them to provide refugia for such threatened fauna as tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii), Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) and rare breeding seabirds.</p><br>
<p>In marine terms, the Houtman Abrolhos is located within the Southwest Shelf Transition, an Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA) biotone that takes in the continental shelf from Perth to Geraldton. This province is defined as the area of shelf where tropical waters intergrade into temperate, thus supporting both tropical and temperate biota. In addition, this area contains the highest concentration of west coast endemics.</p><br>
<p>Consistent with this, the Houtman Abrolhos contains a mix of tropical, temperate and west coast endemic fauna, resulting in unusual associations such as the occurrence of tropical corals in close association with temperate macro-algae. The proportions of tropical, temperate and west coast endemic biota vary from taxonomic group to group, but in general the biota is dominated by tropical species. This is attributable to the location of the Houtman Abrolhos at the northern limit of the Southwest Shelf Transition, together with the warming influence of the Leeuwin Current.</p><br>
<p>Under IMCRA, the Southwest Shelf Transition divides into two meso-scale bioregions. One is named Abrolhos Islands, and covers the shelf waters surrounding the Houtman Abrolhos, with an area of 6,645 square kilometres. The other bioregion, Central West Coast, covers the remaining area.</p><br>
<h2>Terrestrial flora</h2><br>
<p>The vegetation of the Houtman Abrolhos islands is dominated by chenopod shrubs. The flora is generally the same as the coastal flora of the adjacent mainland, with the exception of the islands&#39; mangrove, saltbush and salt lake vegetation.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The vascular flora of the Houtman Abrolhos has been thoroughly surveyed, and species lists have been published for 119 islands. As of 2001, these lists totalled 239 species from 68 families. A further six species have been collected in the Houtman Abrolhos, but cannot be allocated to islands because insufficient location information was recorded. There have also been collections of mosses, liverworts and lichens, but no information has been published on these non-vascular groups.</p><br>
<p>The islands with the greatest floristic diversity are East and West Wallabi Islands, with 124 and 97 species respectively. 54 species occur in all three island groups. The most widely distributed species are Nitraria billardierei (nitre bush), which has been recorded on 106 islands; the exotic Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (iceplant), on 88 islands; Threlkeldia diffusa (coast bonefruit), on 72 islands; and Atriplex cinerea (grey saltbush), on 70 islands. On the other hand, Eucalyptus oraria (ooragmandee) and Acacia didyma occur only on East Wallabi Island.</p><br>
<p>As of 2001, 5 species of priority flora occurred on the islands. The remaining priority species are Chthonocephalus tomentellus, which is rated Priority Two under the Department of Environment and Conservation&#39;s Declared Rare and Priority Flora List; Calocephalus aervoides and Galium migrans, both Priority Three; and Lepidium puberulum, Priority Four.</p><br>
<p>95 exotic species from 29 families have been recorded. In general, islands that have or had human settlements are the weediest. Of greatest concern is the noxious weed Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn), which has long spines that can trap birds. This weed was recorded on the islands as early as 1970. Efforts to eradicate it began in 1990; there was a lull in eradication in the late 1990s, but the program was later reinstated, and in July 2007, the Department of Environment and Conservation reported that the species had been eradicated from 14 of the 18 islands on which it had been recorded. Other noxious weeds include Opuntia stricta (Prickly Pear), Verbesina encelioides and Echium plantagineum (Paterson&#39;s Curse).</p><br>
<h2>Terrestrial fauna</h2><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos is home to around 100 species of bird; for a complete list, see list of birds of the Houtman Abrolhos. Six species are land birds, and three are shore birds. The remainder, the vast majority, are seabirds. Most seabird species have a tropical distribution, but some occur in both tropical and warm-temperate seas, and a small number are warm-temperate only.</p><br>
<p>When numbers of individuals are taken into account, the tropical birds overwhelmingly dominate. The islands are one of the most important breeding sites for tropical seabirds in Australia and have been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA). They contain by far the largest colonies of wedge-tailed shearwater in the eastern Indian Ocean, with over a million breeding pairs recorded there in 1994. They also contain Western Australia&#39;s only breeding colonies of the lesser noddy, and the largest colonies in Western Australia of the little shearwater, white-faced storm petrel, common noddy, Caspian tern, crested tern, roseate tern and fairy tern. In addition, they contain important breeding areas for the Pacific reef heron, Pacific gull, bridled tern, white-bellied sea eagle and osprey.</p><br>
<p>There are two subspecies of bird endemic to the islands. The Abrolhos painted button-quail occurs only on five islands in the Wallabi Group, and is protected as rare under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. Also gazetted as rare, the Australasian subspecies of the lesser noddy, Anous tenuirostris melanops, breeds only on Wooded Island, Morley Island and Pelsaert Island.</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>Only two species of land mammal are indigenous to the Houtman Abrolhos, the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) and the bush rat (Rattus fuscipes). Both are native only to West and East Wallabi Islands, although R. fuscipes has not been collected on East Wallabi Island since August 1967, and is probably extinct there. The tammar wallabi was seen on West Wallabi Island by survivors of the 1628 Batavia shipwreck, and recorded by Francisco Pelsart in his 1629 Ongeluckige Voyagie. This represents the first recorded sighting of a macropod by Europeans, and probably also the first sighting of an Australian mammal. Tammar wallabies were introduced to North Island from East Wallabi Island by fishermen, probably in the 1950s, but failed to establish themselves. In 1987 they were reintroduced again, this time successfully. By the 2000s, there were over 400 wallabies on the island, resulting in overgrazing of native vegetation and increased erosion. Research into the effectiveness of controlling population levels by the use of implanted contraceptives was begun in 2005, but in July 2007 the research was discontinued and the population culled instead.</p><br>
<p>Two introduced mammals are established on the islands. The domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) was introduced to Rat Island around 1900, and the house mouse (Mus musculus) was introduced onto North Island in the 1970s, presumably with food. In 1995 the house mouse was reported as also present on Rat Island for many years before 1987, In addition, three introduced mammals were previously established in the Houtman Abrolhos, but have since been eradicated. The black rat (Rattus rattus) was established on Pigeon and Rat Islands, but has been eradicated by poisoning. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has been introduced at various times onto Leo Island, Middle Island, Morley Island, Pelsaert Island and Wooded Island. In the case of Pelsaert Island, it is not clear whether it ever established; in all other cases, established populations have been eradicated by poisoning. The domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is also reported to have been present on East Wallabi Island, but is no longer.</p><br>
<h3>Reptiles</h3><br>
<p>23 terrestrial reptile species are known to occur on the islands of the Houtman Abrolhos. This relatively low biodiversity is apparently due to the homogeneity of habitat on the islands, which provide few distinct ecological niches. The most significant terrestrial reptile species are the spiny-tailed skink (Egernia stokesii stokesii) and the carpet python (Morelia spilota imbricata), both of which are listed as rare and therefore afforded special protection under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950; and the Abrolhos dwarf bearded dragon (Pogona minor minima), a Houtman Abrolhos endemic that is listed as a Priority 4 species by the Department of Environment and Conservation. For a full list of species, see list of reptiles of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<h3>Amphibians</h3><br>
<p>Specimens of the pobblebonk (Limnodynastes dorsalis) and the turtle frog (Myobatrachus gouldii) were collected from the Houtman Abrolhos during the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition of 1913 and 1915, but no amphibians have been recorded on the islands since that time.</p><br>
<h2>Marine flora</h2><br>
<h3>Algae</h3><br>
<p>260 species of benthic algae have been recorded at the Houtman Abrolhos. This figure comprises 178 species of red algae (Rhodophyta), 50 species of brown algae (Phaeophyta) and 32 species of green algae (Chlorophyta). Both temperate and tropical species are present, in many cases near the northern or southern extent of their range. For a full list, see list of algae of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<h3>Seagrass</h3><br>
<p>Only ten species of seagrass have been recorded at the Houtman Abrolhos. Seven of these are temperate species at or near the northern limit of their range; the other three have a tropical distribution. That there are so few tropical species may be due to periods of low sea temperatures, or the small areas of suitable habitat at the Abrolhos; alternatively it may be that more collecting effort is needed in habitats that suit tropical species. The seagrass species recorded at the Houtman Abrolhos islands are:</p><br>
<h2>Marine fauna</h2><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>At last count, a total of 389 species of fish have been recorded from the Houtman Abrolhos. 16 species occur in very large numbers; in decreasing order of abundance, these are:</p><br>
<p>Pomacentrus milleri (Miller&#39;s damsel)</p><br>
<p>Scarus schlegeli (Schlegel&#39;s parrotfish)</p><br>
<p>Stethojulis strigiventer (stripebelly wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Coris auricularis (western king wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Kyphosus cornelii (western buffalo bream)</p><br>
<p>Choerodon rubescens (baldchin groper)</p><br>
<p>Chromis westaustralis (West Australian puller)</p><br>
<p>Thalassoma lutescens (green moon wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Scarus ghobban (blue-barred orange parrotfish)</p><br>
<p>Abudefduf sexfasciatus (scissortail sergeant)</p><br>
<p>Thalassoma lunare (moon wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Stegastes obreptus (western gregory)</p><br>
<p>Halichoeres brownfieldi (Brownfield&#39;s wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Amblygobius phalaena (white-barred goby)</p><br>
<p>Asterropteryx semipunctatus (starry goby)</p><br>
<p>Anampses geographicus (scribbled wrasse)</p><br>
<p>Commercially important species include Pagrus auratus (pink snapper), Choerodon rubescens (baldchin groper), Glaucosoma hebraicum (westralian dhufish) and Plectropomus leopardus (coral trout). For a complete list of fish species recorded at the Houtman Abrolhos, see List of fishes of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>About two thirds of the total number of species are tropical in distribution, the remainder being subtropical or warm-temperate. This ratio also holds for the most abundant species, eleven of the sixteen species being tropical.</p><br>
<h3>Marine mammals</h3><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos maintains a breeding population of Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea), probably numbering between 75 and 100. Historical data suggests numbers were previously much higher; for example, in 1727 survivors of the Zeewyk shipwreck killed over 150 sea lions in the Southern Group alone. This has led to a 1727 population estimate of between 290 and 580 animals for the entire Houtman Abrolhos. Populations apparently fell dramatically between the 1840s and the 1880s, largely due to extensive commercial sealing in the area. In addition to direct killing of the animals, it is likely that much of the mangrove habitat on the islands was cleared as fuel for trypots, and this may have affected the survival of young pups. Populations are thought to have been fairly stable for the last fifty years, although the lack of genetic diversity in the smaller population remains of concern, as does climate change.</p><br>
<p>Sea lions come ashore to rest on leeward beaches throughout the island chain, but only a small number of these "haulout sites" are used for breeding. Breeding has been observed on Serventy Island, Gilbert Island, Alexander Island, Suomi Island, Keru Island, Square Island, Stick Island, Gibson Island, Gun Island, Morley Island and Wooded Island. All but the last three of these are considered current breeding sites, and are therefore considered by the Department of Fisheries to have a high conservation value.</p><br>
<p>Little information is available on other marine mammals at the Abrolhos, as no direct research on this subject has been undertaken. Sightings of the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), followed by southern rights (Eubalaena australis), are common between April and October, when the whales are migrating. Other marine mammals sometimes sighted at the islands include pygmy Bryde&#39;s whale (Balaenoptera edeni), orca (Orcinus orca), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), common dolphin (Delphinus delphis),</p><br>
<h3>Marine reptiles</h3><br>
<p>The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) both live in the waters off the Houtman Abrolhos, albeit in low numbers. Neither species breeds in the area, as water temperatures are too low.</p><br>
<h3>Coral</h3><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos is unusual in having a luxuriant and diverse living coral reef at such a high latitude. 194 species in 50 genera have been recorded there, all but two of which are tropical. This is a surprisingly high coral diversity, considering the high latitude of the reef, and the relatively low diversity of other biota. For a full list, see list of corals of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>The coral reef community at the Houtman Abrolhos is unusual in having tropical coral growing alongside and in direct competition with, temperate seaweed. As a result of this competition for light, space and nutrients, coral at the Houtman Abrolhos tends to grow more slowly and die younger than is usual. Reef production is to a large extent due to the production of carbon by coralline algae rather than by coral.</p><br>
<h3>Crustaceans</h3><br>
<p>The most notable species of crustacean at the Houtman Abrolhos is the western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus). 44 species of crab and 9 species of amphipod were recorded there by the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition of 1916.</p><br>
<h3>Molluscs</h3><br>
<p>492 species of marine mollusc have been recorded from the shallow waters of the Houtman Abrolhos. These are predominantly gastropods (346 species, 70%) and bivalves (124, 25%); the remaining 5% of species consist of cephalopods (14 species), chitons (5 species) and scaphopods (3 species). About two thirds of the species have a tropical distribution, temperate species account for 20%, and the remaining 11% are endemic to Western Australia. For a full list, see List of molluscs of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>The southern saucer scallop (Amusium balloti) is the only commercially important species. This occurs in sheltered areas of medium-fine sand in deep water to the north-east of the reefs; it is usually the dominant species there.</p><br>
<h3>Echinoderms</h3><br>
<p>Houtman Abrolhos has an extremely high diversity of echinoderms, with 172 species having been recorded there. 63% of these are tropical species, 14% are temperate, and 22% are endemic to Western Australia. None is endemic to the Houtman Abrolhos. Published surveys have not included observations of the crown-of-thorns starfish (Ananthaster planci), but individuals have occasionally been observed there. For a complete list of species, see list of echinoderms of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<h3>Other invertebrates</h3><br>
<p>The sponges of the Houtman Abrolhos are poorly studied, although 109 species of demosponge have been collected there. In the most recent survey, 77 species were collected, of which around half are probably new to science. Only two locations were surveyed in this study, however, so this figure is likely to represent only a small proportion of the total sponge fauna of the Houtman Abrolhos; the islands are therefore thought to harbour an extremely rich diversity of sponges. A preliminary assessment suggested that there were more temperate species than tropical, which stands in marked contrast to most other groups.</p><br>
<p>The marine worms identified at the Houtman Abrolhos include 22 species of the polychaete family Terebellidae, and 16 species of the family oligochaete family Tubificidae. For a list of species, see list of worms of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>A total of 38 hydroid species have been collected at the Houtman Abrolhos. 34 of these are leptothecates, the remainder being anthoathecates. 92% of the species attach to temperate algae, the others to coral rubble. For a list of species, see list of hydroids of the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<h2>Human uses</h2><br>
<h3>Fishing and other visitors</h3><br>
<p>Fresh water has always been a significant constraint on any permanent settlement. Aside from the early castaways noted above, the Islands have only had a small seasonal population of fishermen. The present fishermen all have permanent residence elsewhere, mainly in Geraldton, but their island shacks are used as a base during the season. For example, North Island has a seasonal camp for western rock lobster fishers, with individual moorings and simple dwellings. During lobster season, which runs from 15 March to 30 June, the island hosts up to 130 people. The camp is serviced by a carrier boat, the North Islander, which visits the island every three days, bringing supplies and taking out the catch and any domestic waste.</p><br>
<p>Tourists are not allowed to camp, and the conservation designation of the Island group forbids any real expansion in human occupation.</p><br>
<h4>Western rock lobster</h4><br>
<p>The islands are the centre of the western rock lobster fishery, the largest single-species fishery in Western Australia.</p><br>
<h4>Saucer scallops</h4><br>
<p>After Shark Bay, the Houtman Abrolhos supports Western Australia&#39;s second largest saucer scallop fishery. This fishery is managed under the Abrolhos Islands and Mid West Trawl Limited Entry Fishery Notice 1993. Only 17 licences have been issued, and no more will be made available, as the saucer scallop is considered fully exploited. Licensees are constrained to operate only during scallop season, which generally runs from 1 April to 30 June, and are also subject to restrictions on gear design, boat size and crew numbers.</p><br>
<p>Scallop fishers mainly operate east of the Houtman Abrolhos and between the island groups, in waters deeper than 30 metres. Activity is targeted at sheltered areas of bare sand, where scallops tend to settle. Catches vary greatly from year to year; from 2001 to 2003, for example, the total annual catch totalled 1182 tons, 195 tons and 5840 tons (whole weight) respectively. This variability is apparently related to the strength of the Leeuwin Current, as strong current is correlated with low scallop recruitment.</p><br>
<p>The total value of the fishery in 2003 was A$19.6 million, although this figure includes a small prawn fishery operating out of Port Gregory. Most of the catch is frozen and exported to Asia.</p><br>
<h4>Finfish</h4><br>
<p>The Houtman Abrolhos is the site of some wetlining activity.</p><br>
<h3>Aquaculture</h3><br>
<p>The Department of Fisheries have issued a number of licences to cultivate black-lip pearl oysters in the Abrolhos. The first recipient of a license was Abrolhos Pearls in 1996. By 2000, another license had been issued and four more applications had been received. Six licences had been issued by 2002, and by 2007 that number had grown to eight.</p><br>
<p>95% of the pearl aquaculture is carried out in the Pelsaert Group. Most licenses are over areas of sand, but some areas contain small amounts of coral reef. The colour of the pearls produced is quite different from that of Pacific black pearls, and this is considered a potential marketing tool.</p><br>
<p>In addition to pearl aquaculture, a pilot sea cage finfish farm was licensed in 2004, although the license had not been exercised. Interest has also been expressed in the culture of live rock and coral for the aquarium industry. The Department of Fisheries has identified a number of species as having potential for aquaculture in the Abrolhos, including the Shark Bay pearl oyster (Pinctada albina), the maxima clam (Tridacna maxima), rock oysters (Saccostrea sp.), the saucer scallop (Amusium balloti), the western rock lobster, and a number of species of finfish, most of which are filter feeders.</p><br>
<h3>Mineral exploration</h3><br>
<p>Petroleum exploration wells were drilled in Abrolhos waters in the 1960s and 1970s, but were capped and abandoned. The Abrolhos was amongst the areas released for further exploration in 2002.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>The Abrolhos provides some of the best snorkelling, diving and deep sea fishing in the world, along with some of Australia&#39;s most significant historical sights, such as the shipwreck of the Batavia.</p><br>
<p>Although an important tourist destination, the tourists are not allowed to stay overnight.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The majority of cultural references to the Houtman Abrolhos relate to the islands&#39; shipwrecks, particularly the Batavia. The events surrounding the loss of the Batavia is one of the most celebrated episodes in Australian popular history; in the words of Henrietta Drake-Brockman:The story has spawned a massive body of literature, both fiction and non-fiction, as well as numerous works in other media.</p><br>
<p>Other shipwrecks, notably the Zeewijk (also spelled Zeewyk), have also become the subject of books and other works. Shipwrecks aside, however, cultural references to the Houtman Abrolhos are rare. By far the best known book on the Houtman Abrolhos itself is Malcolm Urens Sailormens ghosts: The Abrolhos islands in three hundred years of romance, history, and adventure. First published in 1940, this book saw numerous editions published in the 1940s, and was even republished in 1980 as a "West Australian classic". In it, Uren tells both the history of the islands and the story of his own visit to the islands.</p><br>
<p>Other books include William Bede Christies 1909 Christmas on the briny: the innocents abroad, or, a holiday trip to the Abrolhos islands, and Alison Louise Wrights 1998 Abrolhos Islands Conversations. The latter, a book of interviews and portraits of the people of the Abrolhos, won the Special Award in the 1999 Western Australian Premier&#39;s Book Awards.</p><br>
<p>The islands featured in the first episode of Surfing the Menu, an eight-part food and travel series produced for the ABC in 2003, and the following year were featured on Getaway, Australia&#39;s longest-running and most popular holiday and travel television programme. They were the subject of a motion picture entitled Eye opener, published by The Film Centre WA in 1981, and of a piece of classical music entitled Abrolhos: A ceremonial overture, written by William Stewart in 1988 under commission to the Geraldton Town Council.</p><br>
<p>Jethou is a small island that is part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey in the Channel Islands. It is privately leased, and not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>It is immediately south of Herm and has an area of approximately 44 acre.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is evidence of flint manufacturing in an area exposed only at low water between the island and Crevichon which shows occupation around 10,000 BC.</p><br>
<p>It is said that in AD 709 a storm washed away the strip of land that connected the island with Herm.</p><br>
<p>The Viking name for the island was Keitholm.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s name contains the Norman -hou suffix, meaning small island or small hill.</p><br>
<p>In 1416, it became part of Henry V&#39;s estate and still remains a Crown lease and now owned by the States of Guernsey.</p><br>
<p>On the top is a marker. It is said that in earlier times, pirates were hanged on it with chains, as on nearby Crevichon.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>In 1867 Lt Colonel Montague Fielden became tenant however he was discovered using the island as a storehouse for smuggling Brandy.</p><br>
<p>From 1920 to 1923 it was leased by the Scottish novelist Compton MacKenzie along with Herm and remained part of that estate for years, although it is currently part of a different one.</p><br>
<p>The British 1957 musical Free as Air by Dorothy Reynolds & Julian Slade was set on the fictitious island of Terhou, which was based on Jethou.</p><br>
<p>From September 1964 until December 1971 the island was occupied by the Faed family consisting of Mr Angus Faed, his wife Susan Faed and their four children, Colin, Erik, Colette and Amanda. Mrs. Susan Faed was the 22nd tenant of Jethou.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, Charles Hayward, founder of the Firth Cleveland Group of Companies, purchased the Crown Tenancy of the island and lived there with his wife Elsie Darnell George until Sir Charles&#39;s death in 1983.</p><br>
<p>It is flanked by two islets, Crevichon to the north and Fauconniere to the south. There is one house on the island and two cottages as well as a large garage where vehicles such as quad bikes and tractors are stored.</p><br>
<p>It is now leased by Sir Peter Ogden of IT company Computacenter.</p><br>
<p>Recognised in 2016 as an area of international environmental importance under the Ramsar Convention.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Unlike the largely autonomous islands of Sark and Alderney within the Bailiwick, Jethou is administered entirely by the States of Guernsey, and elects members to the States of Deliberation as part of the St. Peter Port South electoral district.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>At the back (east) of Jethou, puffins can be seen swimming off the rocks.</p><br>
<p>Argos  is a city in Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece and once was one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It is the biggest town in Argolis and a major centre for the area.</p><br>
<p>Since the 2011 local government reform it has been part of the municipality of Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 138.138 km. It is 11 km from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour. A settlement of great antiquity, Argos has been continuously inhabited as at least a substantial village for the past 7,000 years. The city is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network.</p><br>
<p>A resident of the city of Argos is known as an Argive (pronounced, "", or, "&quot Ἀργεῖος). However, this term is also used to refer to those ancient Greeks generally who assaulted the city of Troy during the Trojan War; the term is more widely applied by the Homeric bards.</p><br>
<p>Numerous ancient monuments can be found in the city today. Agriculture is the mainstay of the local economy.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name of the city is very ancient and several etymological theories have been proposed as an explanation to its meaning. The most popular one maintains that the name of the city is a remainder from the Pelasgian language, i.e. the one used by the people who first settled in the area, in which Argos meant "plain". Alternatively, the name is associated with Argos, the third king of the city in ancient times, who renamed it after himself, thus replacing its older name Foronikon Asty (Φορωνικόν Άστυ). It is also believed that "Argos" is linked to the word "αργός" (argós), which meant "white&quot possibly, this had to do with the visual impression given of the argolic plain during harvest time. According to Strabo, the name could have even originated from the word "αγρός" (=field) by antimetathesis of the consonants.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>As a strategic location on the fertile plain of Argolis, Argos was a major stronghold during the Mycenaean era. In classical times Argos was a powerful rival of Sparta for dominance over the Peloponnese, but was eventually shunned by other Greek city-states after remaining neutral during the Greco-Persian Wars.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence of continuous settlement in the area starting with a village about 7000 years ago in the late Neolithic, located on the foot of Aspida hill.</p><br>
<p>The city is located at a rather propitious area, among Nemea, Corinth and Arcadia. It also benefitted from its proximity to lake Lerna, which, at the time, was at a distance of one kilometre from the south end of Argos.</p><br>
<p>Argos was a major stronghold of Mycenaean times, and along with the neighbouring acropolis of Mycenae and Tiryns became a very early settlement because of its commanding positions in the midst of the fertile plain of Argolis. Argos experienced its greatest period of expansion and power under the energetic 7th century BC ruler King Pheidon. Under Pheidon, Argos regained sway over the cities of the Argolid and challenged Sparta’s dominance of the Peloponnese. During this time of its greatest power, the city boasted a pottery and bronze sculpturing school, pottery workshops, tanneries and clothes producers. Moreover, at least 25 celebrations took place in the city, in addition to a regular local products exhibition. A sanctuary dedicated to Hera was also found at the same spot where the monastery of Panagia Katekrymeni is located today.</p><br>
<p>Argos remained neutral or the ineffective ally of Athens during the 5th century BC struggles between Sparta and Athens. This, however, led to its weakening and loss of power, which in turn led to the shift of commercial focus from the Ancient Agora to the eastern side of the city, delimited by Danaou and Agiou Konstadinou streets.</p><br>
<h3>Democracy in Classical Argos</h3><br>
<p>Argos was a democracy for most of the classical period, with only a brief hiatus between 418 and 416. Democracy was first established after a disastrous defeat by the Spartans at the battle of Sepeia in 494. So many Argives were killed in the battle that a revolution ensued, in which previously disenfranchised outsiders were included in the state for the first time.</p><br>
<p>Argive democracy included an Assembly (called the aliaia), a Council (the bola), and another body called The Eighty, whose precise responsibilities are obscure. Magistrates served six-month terms of office, with few exceptions, and were audited at the end of their terms. There is some evidence that ostracism was practiced.</p><br>
<h3>Roman, Byzantine, Crusader, Ottoman rule and independence</h3><br>
<p>Under Roman rule, Argos was part of the province of Achaea. Under Byzantine rule it was part of the theme of Hellas, and later of the theme of the Peloponnese.</p><br>
<p>In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders captured the castle built on Larisa Hill, the site of the ancient acropolis, and the area become part of the lordship of Argos and Nauplia. In 1388 it was sold to the Republic of Venice, but was taken by the Despot of the Morea Theodore I Palaiologos before the Venetians could take control of the city; he sold it anyway to them in 1394. The Crusaders established a Latin bishopric. Venetian rule lasted until 1463, when the Ottomans captured the city.</p><br>
<p>In 1397, the Ottomans plundered Argos, carrying off much of the population, to sell as slaves. The Venetians repopulated the town and region with Albanian settlers, granting them long-term agrarian tax exemptions. Together with the Greeks of Argos, they supplied stratioti troops to the armies of Venice. Some historians consider the French military term "argoulet" to derive from the Greek "argetes", or inhabitant of Argos, as a large number of French stratioti came from the plain of Argos.</p><br>
<p>During Ottoman rule, Argos was divided in four mahalas, or quarters; the Greek (Rûm) mahala, Liepur mahala, Bekir Efenti mahala and Karamoutza or Besikler mahala, respectively corresponding to what is now the northeastern, the northwestern, the southwestern and southeastern part of the city. The Greek mahala was also called the "quarter of the unfaithful of Archos town" in Turkish documents, whereas Liepur mahala (the quarter of the Rabbits) was composed mostly of Albanian emigrants and well-reputed families. As far as Karamoutza mahala is concerned, it was home to the most prominent Turks and boasted a mosque (modern-day church of Agios Konstadinos), a Turkish cemetery, Ali Nakin Beis serail, Turkish baths and a Turkish school. It is also at this period when the open market of the city is first organised on the site north to Kapodistrias barracks, at the same spot where it is held in modern times. Interestingly, a mosque would have existed there, too, according to the city planning most Ottoman cities followed.</p><br>
<p>Argos grew exponentially during this time, with its sprawl being unregulated and without planning. As French explorer Pouqueville noted, "its houses are not aligned, without order, scattered all over the place, divided by home gardens and uncultivated areas". Liepur mahala appears to have been the most organised, having the best layout, while Bekir mahala and Karamoutza mahala were the most labyrinthine. However, all quarters shared the same type of streets; firstly, they all had main streets which were wide, busy and public roads meant to allow for communication between neighbourhoods (typical examples are, to a great extent, modern-day Korinthou, Nafpliou and Tripoleos streets). Secondary streets were also common in all four quarters since they lead to the interior of each mahala, having a semi-public character, whereas the third type of streets referred to dead-end private alleys used specifically by families to access their homes. Remnants of this city layout can be witnessed even today, as Argos still preserves several elements of this Ottoman type style, particularly with its long and complicated streets, its narrow alleys and its densely constructed houses.</p><br>
<p>With the exception of a period of Venetian domination in 1687–1715, Argos remained in Ottoman hands until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, when wealthy Ottoman families moved to nearby Nafplio due to its stronger walling.</p><br>
<p>At that time, as part of the general uprising, many local governing bodies were formed in different parts of the country, and the "Consulate of Argos" was proclaimed on 28 March 1821, under the Peloponnesian Senate. It had a single head of state, Stamatellos Antonopoulos, styled "Consul", between 28 March and 26 May 1821.</p><br>
<p>Later, Argos accepted the authority of the unified Provisional Government of the First National Assembly at Epidaurus, and eventually became part of the Kingdom of Greece. With the coming of governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, the city underwent efforts of modernisation. Being an agricultural village, the need for urban planning was vital. For this reason, in 1828, Kapodistrias himself appointed mechanic Stamatis Voulgaris as the creator of a city plan which would offer Argos big streets, squares and public spaces. However, both Voulgaris and, later, French architect de Borroczuns plans were not well received by the locals, with the result that the former had to be revised by Zavos. Ultimately, none of the plans were fully implemented. Still, the structural characteristics of de Borroczuns plan can be found in the city today, despite obvious proof of pre-revolutionary layout, such as the unorganised urban sprawl testified in the area from Inachou street to the point where the railway tracks can be found today.</p><br>
<p>After talks concerning the intentions of the Greek government to move the Greek capital from Nafplio to Athens, discussions regarding the possibility of Argos also being a candidate as the potential new capital became more frequent, with supporters of the idea claiming that, unlike Athens, Argos was naturally protected by its position and benefited from a nearby port (Nafplio). Moreover, it was maintained that construction of public buildings would be difficult in Athens, given that most of the land was owned by the Greek church, meaning that a great deal of expropriation would have to take place. On the contrary, Argos did not face a similar problem, having large available areas for this purpose. In the end, the proposition of the Greek capital being moved to Argos was rejected by the father of king Otto, Ludwig, who insisted in making Athens the capital, something which eventually happened in 1834.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>The mythological kings of Argos are (in order): Inachus, Phoroneus, Argus, Triopas, Agenor, Iasus, Crotopus, Pelasgus (aka Gelanor), Danaus, Lynceus, Abas, Proetus, Acrisius, Perseus, Megapenthes, Argeus and Anaxagoras.</p><br>
<p>An alternative version supplied by Tatian of the original 17 consecutive kings of Argos includes Apis, Argios, Kriasos and Phorbas between Argus and Triopas, explaining the apparent unrelation of Triopas to Argus.</p><br>
<p>The city of Argos was believed to be the birthplace of the mythological character Perseus, the son of the god Zeus and Danaë, who was the daughter of the king of Argos, Acrisius.</p><br>
<p>After the original 17 kings of Argos, there were three kings ruling Argos at the same time (see Anaxagoras), one descended from Bias, one from Melampus, and one from Anaxagoras. Melampus was succeeded by his son Mantius, then Oicles, and Amphiaraus, and his house of Melampus lasted down to the brothers Alcmaeon and Amphilochus.</p><br>
<p>Anaxagoras was succeeded by his son Alector, and then Iphis. Iphis left his kingdom to his nephew Sthenelus, the son of his brother Capaneus.</p><br>
<p>Bias was succeeded by his son Talaus, and then by his son Adrastus who, with Amphiaraus, commanded the disastrous Seven Against Thebes. Adrastus bequeathed the kingdom to his son, Aegialeus, who was subsequently killed in the war of the Epigoni. Diomedes, grandson of Adrastus through his son-in-law Tydeus and daughter Deipyle, replaced Aegialeus and was King of Argos during the Trojan war. This house lasted longer than those of Anaxagoras and Melampus, and eventually the kingdom was reunited under its last member, Cyanippus, son of Aegialeus, soon after the exile of Diomedes.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>After Christianity became established in Argos, the first bishop documented in extant written records is Genethlius, who in 448 AD took part in the synod called by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople that deposed Eutyches from his priestly office and excommunicated him. The next bishop of Argos, Onesimus, was at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. His successor, Thales, was a signatory of the letter that the bishops of the Roman province of Hellas sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian to protest about the killing of Proterius of Alexandria. Bishop Ioannes was at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, and Theotimus at the Photian Council of Constantinople (879). The local see is today the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Argolis.</p><br>
<p>Under Frankish Crusader rule, Argos became a Latin Church bishopric in 1212, which lasted as a residential see until Argos was taken by the Ottoman Empire in 1463 but would be revived under the second Venetian rule in 1686. Today the diocese is a Catholic titular see.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<h3>Orientation</h3><br>
<p>The city of Argos is delimited to the north by dry river Xerias, to the east by Inachos river and Panitsa stream (which emanates from the latter), to the west by the Larissa hill (site of homonymous castle and of a monastery called Panagia Katakekrymeni-Portokalousa) and the Aspidos Hill (unofficially Prophetes Elias hill), and to the south by the Notios Periferiakos road.</p><br>
<p>The Agios Petros (Saint Peter) square, along with the eponymous cathedral (dedicated to saint Peter the Wonderworker), make up the town centre, whereas some other characteristic town squares are the Laiki Agora (Open Market) square, officially Dimokratias (Republic) square, where, as implied by its name, an open market takes place twice a week, Staragora (Wheat Market), officially Dervenakia square, and Dikastirion (Court) square. Bonis Park is an essential green space of the city.</p><br>
<p>Currently, the most commercially active streets of the city are those surrounding the Agios Petros square (Kapodistriou, Danaou, Vassileos Konstantinou streets) as well as Korinthou street. The Pezodromi (Pedestrian Streets), i.e. the paved Michael Stamou, Tsaldari and Venizelou streets, are the most popular meeting point, encompassing a wide variety of shops and cafeterias.</p><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>In 700 BC there were at least 5,000 people living in the city. In the fourth century BC, the city was home to as many as 30,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Today, according to the 2011 Greek census, the city has a population of 22,209. It is the largest city in Argolis, larger than the capital Nafplio.</p><br>
<h3>Economy</h3><br>
<p>The primary economic activity in the area is agriculture. Citrus fruits are the predominant crop, followed by olives and apricots. The area is also famous for its local melon variety, Argos melons (or Argetiko). There is also important local production of dairy products, factories for fruits processing.</p><br>
<p>Considerable remains of the ancient and medieval city survive and are a popular tourist attraction.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments</h2><br>
<p>Most of Argos&#39; historical and archaeological monuments are currently unused, abandoned, or only partially renovated:</p><br>
<p>The Larisa castle, built during prehistoric time, which has undergone several repairs and expansions since antiquity and played a significant historical role during the Venetian domination of Greece and the Greek War of Independence. It is located on top of the homonymous Larisa Hill, which also constitutes the highest spot of the city (289 m.). In ancient times, a castle was also found in neighbouring Aspida Hill. When connected with walls, these two castles fortified the city from enemy invasions.</p><br>
<p>The Ancient theatre, built in the 3rd century B.C with a capacity of 20,000 spectators, replaced an older neighbouring theatre of the 5th century BC and communicated with the Ancient Agora. It was visible from any part of the ancient city and the Argolic gulf. In 1829, it was used by Ioannis Kapodistrias for the Fourth National Assembly of the new Hellenic State. Today, cultural events are held at its premises during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>The Ancient Agora, adjacent to the Ancient theatre, which developed in the 6th century B.C., was located at the junction of the ancient roads coming from Corinth, Heraion and Tegea. Excavations in the area have uncovered a bouleuterion, built in 460 B.C. when Argos adopted the democratic regime, a Sanctuary of Apollo Lyceus and a palaestra.</p><br>
<p>The "Criterion" of Argos, an ancient monument located on the southwest side of the town, on the foot of Larissa hill, which came to have its current structure during the 6th-3rd century BC period. Initially, it served as a court of ancient Argos, similar to Areopagus of Athens. According to mythology, it was at this area where Hypermnestra, one of the 50 daughters of Danaus, the first king of Argos, was tried. Later, under the reigns of Hadrian, a fountain was created to collect and circulate water coming from the Hadrianean aqueduct located in northern Argos. The site is connected via a paved path with the ancient theatre.</p><br>
<p>The Barracks of Kapodistrias, a preservable building with a long history. Built in the 1690s during the Venetian domination of Greece, they initially served as a hospital run by the Sisters of Mercy. During the Tourkokratia, they served as a market and a post office. Later, in 1829, significant damage caused during the Greek revolution was repaired by Kapodistrias who turned the building into a cavalry barrack, a school (1893-1894), an exhibition space (1899), a shelter for Greek refugees displaced during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey (since 1920) and an interrogation and torture space (during the German occupation of Greece). In 1955-68, it was used by the army for the last time; it now accommodates the Byzantine Museum of Argos, local corporations and also serves as an exhibition space.</p><br>
<p>The Municipal Neoclassical Market building (unofficially the "Kamares", i.e. arches, from the arches that it boasts), built in 1889, which is located next to Dimokratias square, is one of the finest samples of modern Argos&#39; masterly architecture, in Ernst Ziller style. The elongated, two corridor, preservable building accommodates small shops.</p><br>
<p>The Kapodistrian school, in central Argos. Built by architect Labros Zavos in 1830, as part of Kapodistrias&#39; efforts to provide places of education to the Greek people, it could accommodate up to 300 students. However, technical difficulties led to its decay, until it was restored several times, the last of which being in 1932. Today, its neoclassical character is evident, with the building housing the 1st elementary school of the town.</p><br>
<p>The old Town Hall, built during the time of Kapodistrias in 1830, which originally served as a Justice of the peace, the Dimogerontia of Argos, an Arm of Carabineers and a prison. From 1987 to 2012, it housed the Town Hall which is now located in Kapodistriou street.</p><br>
<p>The House of philhellene Thomas Gordon, built in 1829 that served as an all-girls school, a dance school and was home to the 4th Greek artillery regiment. Today it accommodates the French Institute of Athens (Institut Français d&#39; Athènes).</p><br>
<p>The House of Spyridon Trikoupis (built in 1900), where the politician was born and spent his childhood. Also located in the estate, which is not open to public, is the Saint Charalambos chapel where Trikoupis was baptized.</p><br>
<p>The House of general Tsokris, important military fighter in the Greek revolution of 1821 and later assemblyman of Argos.</p><br>
<p>The temple of Agios Konstadinos, one of the very few remaining buildings in Argos dating from the Ottoman Greece era. It is estimated to have been built in the 1570-1600 period, with a minaret also having existed in its premises. It served as a mosque and an Ottoman cemetery up to 1871, when it was declared a Christian temple.</p><br>
<p>The chambered tombs of the Aspidos hill.</p><br>
<p>The Hellinikon Pyramid. Dating back to late 4th B.C., there exist many theories as to the purpose it served (tumulus, fortress). Together with the widely accepted scientific chronology, there are some people who claim it was built shortly after the Pharaoh tomb, i.e. the Great Pyramid of Giza, thus a symbol of the excellent relationship the citizens of Argos had with Egypt.</p><br>
<p>A great number of archaeological findings, dating from the prehistoric ages, can be found at the Argos museum, housed at the old building of Dimitrios Kallergis at Saint Peter&#39;s square. The Argos airport, located in an homonymous area (Aerodromio) in the outskirts of the city is also worth mentioning. The area it covers was created in 1916-1917 and was greatly used during the Greco-Italian War and for the training of new Kaberos school aviators for the Hellenic Air Force Academy. It also constituted an important benchmark in the organization of the Greek air forces in southern Greece. Furthermore, the airport was used by the Germans for the release of their aerial troops during the Battle of Crete. It was last used as a landing/take off point for spray planes (for agricultural purposes in the olive tree cultivations) up until 1985.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>Argos is connected via regular bus services with neighbouring areas as well as Athens. In addition, taxi stands can be found at the Agios Petros as well as the Laiki Agora square. The city also has a railway station which, at the moment, remains closed due to an indefinite halt to all railway services in the Peloponnese area by the Hellenic Railways Organisation. However, in late 2014, it was announced that the station would open up again, as part of an expansion of the Athens suburban railway in Argos, Nafplio and Korinthos.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Argos has a wide range of educational institutes that also serve neighbouring sparsely populated areas and villages. In particular, the city has seven dimotika (primary schools), four gymnasia (junior high), three lyceums (senior high), one vocational school, one music school as well as a Touristical Business and Cooking department and a post-graduate ASPETE department. The city also has two public libraries.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Argos hosts two sport clubs with presence in higher national divisions and several achievements, Panargiakos F.C. football club, founded in 1926 and AC Diomidis Argous handball club founded in 1976. Diomidis Argos is the unique provincial Greek sport club with European cup.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Acrisius, mythological king</p><br>
<p>Theoclymenus, mythological prophet</p><br>
<p>Agamemnon, legendary leader of the Achaeans in the Trojan War</p><br>
<p>Acusilaus (6th century BC), logographer and mythographer</p><br>
<p>Ageladas (6th–5th century BC), sculptor</p><br>
<p>Calchas (8th century BC), Homeric mythological seer</p><br>
<p>Karanos (8th century BC), founder of the Macedonian Argead Dynasty</p><br>
<p>Leo Sgouros (13th century), Byzantine despot</p><br>
<p>Nikon the Metanoeite (10th century), Christian saint of Armenian origin, according to some sources born in Argos</p><br>
<p>Pheidon (7th century BC), king of Argos</p><br>
<p>Argus (7th century BC), king of Argos</p><br>
<p>Polykleitos (5th–4th century BC), sculptor</p><br>
<p>Polykleitos the Younger (4th century BC), sculptor</p><br>
<p>Telesilla (6th century BC), Greek poet</p><br>
<p>Bilistiche, hetaira and lover of pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus</p><br>
<p>Eleni Bakopanos (born 1954), Canadian politician</p><br>
<p>Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin (1837-1914), American statesman</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns & sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Argos is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Veria, Greece</p><br>
<p>Abbeville, France</p><br>
<p>Episkopi, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Mtskheta, Georgia (1991)</p><br>
<h3>Other relations</h3><br>
<p>Most Ancient European Towns Network</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Heaven is an imperial complex of religious buildings situated in the southeastern part of central Beijing. The complex was visited by the Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies of prayer to Heaven for good harvest. It has been regarded as a Taoist temple, although Chinese heaven worship, especially by the reigning monarch of the day, predates Taoism.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The temple complex was constructed from 1406 to 1420 during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, who was also responsible for the construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing. The complex was extended and renamed Temple of Heaven during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor in the 16th century. Jiajing also built three other prominent temples in Beijing, the Temple of Sun (日壇) in the east, the Temple of Earth (地壇) in the north, and the Temple of Moon (月壇) in the west. The Temple of Heaven was renovated in the 18th century under the Qianlong Emperor. By then, the state budget was insufficient, so this was the last large-scale renovation of the temple complex in imperial times.</p><br>
<p>The temple was occupied by the Anglo-French Alliance during the Second Opium War. In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the Eight Nation Alliance occupied the temple complex and turned it into the force&#39;s temporary command in Beijing, which lasted for one year. The occupation desecrated the temple and resulted in serious damage to the building complex and the garden. Robberies of temple artifacts by the Alliance were also reported. With the downfall of the Qing, the temple complex was left un-managed. The neglect of the temple complex led to the collapse of several halls in the following years.</p><br>
<p>In 1914, Yuan Shikai, then President of the Republic of China, performed a Ming prayer ceremony at the temple, as part of an effort to have himself declared Emperor of China. In 1918 the temple was turned into a park and for the first time open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Heaven was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998 and was described as "a masterpiece of architecture and landscape design which simply and graphically illustrates a cosmogony of great importance for the evolution of one of the world’s great civilizations..." as the "symbolic layout and design of the Temple of Heaven had a profound influence on architecture and planning in the Far East over many centuries."</p><br>
<h2>Buildings and layout</h2><br>
<p>The Temple grounds cover 2.73 km² of parkland and comprises three main groups of constructions, all built according to strict philosophical requirements:</p><br>
<p>The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests (祈年殿) is a magnificent triple-gabled circular building, 36 meters in diameter and 38 meters tall, built on three levels of marble stone base, where the Emperor prayed for good harvests. The building is completely wooden, with no nails. The original building was burned down by a fire caused by lightning in 1889. The current building was re-built several years after the incident.</p><br>
<p>The Imperial Vault of Heaven (皇穹宇) is a single-gabled circular building, built on a single level of marble stone base. It is located south of the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and resembles it, but is smaller. It is surrounded by a smooth circular wall, the Echo Wall, that can transmit sounds over large distances. The Imperial Vault is connected to the Hall of Prayer by the Vermilion Steps Bridge, a 360 m raised walkway that slowly ascends from the Vault to the Hall of Prayer. The dome for this building also has no crossbeams to support the dome. ASU557 (talk) 03:20, 29 November 2017 (UTC)ASU557</p><br>
<p>The Circular Mound Altar (圜丘坛) is the altar proper, located south of the Imperial Vault of Heaven. It is an empty circular platform on three levels of marble stones, each decorated by lavishly carved dragons. The numbers of various elements of the Altar, including its balusters and steps, are either the sacred number nine or its nonuples. The center of the altar is a round slate called the Heart of Heaven (天心石) or the Supreme Yang (太阳石), where the Emperor prayed for favorable weather. Thanks to the design of the altar, the sound of the prayer will be reflected by the guardrail, creating significant resonance, which was supposed to help the prayer communicate with Heaven. The Altar was built in 1530 by the Jiajing Emperor and rebuilt in 1740.</p><br>
<h2>Ceremony</h2><br>
<p>In ancient China, the Emperor of China was regarded as the Son of Heaven, who administered earthly matters on behalf of, and representing, heavenly authority. To be seen to be showing respect to the source of his authority, in the form of sacrifices to heaven, was extremely important. The temple was built for these ceremonies, mostly comprising prayers for good harvests.</p><br>
<p>Twice a year the Emperor and all his retinue would move from the Forbidden City through Beijing to encamp within the complex, wearing special robes and abstaining from eating meat. No ordinary Chinese was allowed to view this procession or the following ceremony. In the temple complex the Emperor would personally pray to Heaven for good harvests. The highpoint of the ceremony at the winter solstice was performed by the Emperor on the Earthly Mount. The ceremony had to be perfectly completed; it was widely held that the smallest of mistakes would constitute a bad omen for the whole nation in the coming year.</p><br>
<h2>Symbolism</h2><br>
<p>Earth was represented by a square and Heaven by a circle; several features of the temple complex symbolize the connection of Heaven and Earth, of circle and square. The whole temple complex is surrounded by two cordons of walls; the outer wall has a taller, semi-circular northern end, representing Heaven, and a shorter, rectangular southern end, representing the Earth. Both the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and the Circular Mound Altar are round, each standing on a square yard, again representing Heaven and Earth.</p><br>
<p>The number nine represents the Emperor and is evident in the design of the Circular Mound Altar: a single round marmor plate is surrounded by a ring of nine plates, then a ring of 18 plates, and so on for a total of nine surrounding rings, the outermost having 9&times;9 plates.</p><br>
<p>The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests has four inner, twelve middle and twelve outer pillars, representing the four seasons, twelve months and twelve traditional Chinese hours respectively. Combined together, the twelve middle and twelve outer pillars represent the traditional solar terms.</p><br>
<p>All the buildings within the Temple have special dark blue roof tiles, representing the Heaven.</p><br>
<p>The Seven-Star Stone Group, east of the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvest, represents the seven peaks of Taishan Mountain, a place of Heaven worship in classical China.</p><br>
<p>There are four main supportive, dragon pillars each representing a season. The structure, held up by these dragons, imitates the style of an ancient Chinese royal palace. Twelve inner pillars symbolize the lunar months, and it is thought that the twelve outer pillars refer to the 12 two-hour periods of the day.</p><br>
<h2>Park</h2><br>
<p>The surrounding park is quite extensive, with the entire complex totaling 267 hectares (660 acres). Some of it consists of playgrounds, exercise and game areas. These facilities are well used by adults, as well as by parents and grandparents bringing children to play. Some of the open spaces and side buildings are often used, particularly in the morning, for choral shows, ethnic dances, and other presentations.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The Temple of Heaven is located in southern Dongcheng District, which until 2010 was part of Chongwen District. The park itself is open daily from 6:00am-10:00pm. The relic sites inside the park open at 8:00 and close at 17:30 from April 1 to October 31, and close at 17:00 from November 1 to March 31. There is a nominal entry charge. Tickets stop selling one hour and half before gate closing.</p><br>
<p>All four of the park&#39;s gates are accessible by public transportation.</p><br>
<p>East Gate on Tiantan East Rd. and Tiyuguan Rd.: Beijing Subway Line 5 Tiantandongmen Station; Beijing Bus routes 25, 36, 39, 208, 525, 610, 685, 686, 723, 827, 829, 957, 958</p><br>
<p>West Gate on Tianqiao South St. and Nanwei Rd.: Beijing Bus route 2, 15, 17, 20, 35, 36, 69, 71, 120, 203, 504, 707, 729, BRT1, 特11</p><br>
<p>North Gate on Tiantan Rd. and Qinnian St.: Beijing Bus routes 6, 34, 35, 36, 106, 110, 687, 707</p><br>
<p>South Gate on Yongdingmen East St. and Jintai Rd.: Beijing Bus routes 36, 53, 120, 122, 208, 525, 610, 958, 特3, 特11, 特12, 运通102</p><br>
<p>The Tödi , is a mountain massif and with the mountain peak Piz Russein the highest mountain in the Glarus Alps and the highest summit in the canton of Glarus, Switzerland. It is located on the border between the cantons of Graubünden, to the south, and Glarus, to the north, close to the point where those two cantons meet the canton of Uri, to the west. Although not the culminating point of Graubünden, it is its highest peak outside the Bernina range.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Tödi lies in the west part of the Glarus Alps, between Linthal on the north and Disentis on the south. The Tödi is a vast mountain massif projecting as a promontory to the north from the range that divides the basin of the Linth from that of the Rhine.</p><br>
<p>There are three principal peaks. The lowest, and northernmost, which is that seen from the Ober Sand Alp, is called Sandgipfel (3,398 m). The Glärner Tödi (3,571 m), long supposed to be the highest, and most conspicuous from Stachelberg and other points of view to the north, is actually the second in height. The highest summit (3,614 m) lies west of the Glärner Tödi, and is distinguished by the Grison name Piz Russein. Politically, the Tödi is split between the municipalities of Disentis and Sumvitg (Graubünden), and Glarus Süd (Glarus).</p><br>
<p>The central mass of the mountain is enclosed between two glaciers, of which the most considerable is the Biferten Glacier. This originates in a vast snow-basin south-east of the Tödi, bounded to the south by the peaks of Stoc Grond, Piz Urlaun and Bifertenstock, forming the boundary of the two cantons. The last-named peak is connected with the Selbsanft by a massive wall of precipitous rocks enclosing the glacier on the east side, and forcing it, after descending at first nearly due east, to bend round first to north-east, and then due north. On the opposite side a ridge of rocks called Bifertengrätli, descending north-east from the Tödi, forms the boundary of the Biferten Glacier. The end of this nearest the Tödi is the Grünhorn, whereon stood the first hut of the Swiss Alpine Club. The Biferten Glacier is difficult to access, owing to its steepness. It includes some ice-falls, with intermediate steeps, and is much crevassed. On the west side of the Tödi lies the Sand Glacier or Sandfirn, which descends towards the Sand Alp from the dividing ridge forming the pass to the south. This does not extend so far south as the head of the Biferten Glacier. The ridge running due north from the Stoc Grond to the summit of the Tödi overlooks the head of the Val Russein on the Graubünden side of the chain, but it appears that the main mass of the Tödi lies altogether on the north side of the watershed.</p><br>
<p>The 1,570-metre prominence is particularly visible from the Glarus side, where the difference of altitude between the summit and the Linth Valley is almost 3 km. The difference is smaller on the south side as the Rhine Valley is above 1,000 metres.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>On the south side, the massif of the Tödi is mainly composed of gneiss, which, according to Escher von der Linth, overlies a pioritic granite with large felspar crystals. The summit and the northern flank are mainly composed of metamorphic slate, in which talc predominates, but is sometimes replaced by felspar, so that the rock sometimes approaches the condition of gneiss and sometimes that of mica slate. There are manifest traces of anthracite, especially at the Bifertengrätli, where the rock in some places assumes the appearance of a quartzite mixed with fragment of talc, which has elsewhere in this region been referred to the Verrucano. To these strata succeed dolomite and Jurassic limestone, similar in character to those developed on a large scale in the canton of Glarus.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing and skiing</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded attempts to reach the summit were made by Placidus a Spescha, one of the founders of mountaineering. He was born in 1752 and entered the monastery of Disentis. It was not until 1824 that the peak was climbed, when Placidus a Spescha, accompanied by a servant and two chamois-hunters, made his sixth and final assault from the south side. On the way up they spent a night at the Russein huts and the next day, on September 1, they climbed to the gap called Porta da Spescha where Placidus and the servant watched the two hunters complete the climb to the top. They were Augustin Bisquolm and Placi Curschellas</p><br>
<p>On April 19, 1863, the Swiss Alpine Club is founded. Rudolf Theodor Simler became central president, and designated the Tödi and Clariden region as the first area of exploration. A simple shelter was made at the foot of the mountain near the Biferten Glacier, the Grünhorn Hut, which was the first mountain hut of the Swiss Alpine Club.</p><br>
<p>Europe contains some of the world&#39;s largest vertical relief available to mountaineers, including lines that exceed the scale of Himalayan routes. According to Reudi Beglinger, mountain guide and founder of Selkirk Mountain Experience, ski-mountaineering options on the Tödi include what is "generally considered one of the most technically difficult lines in the Alps, almost a 10,000-foot descent".</p><br>
<p>The Strait of Belle Isle ) is a waterway in eastern Canada that separates the Labrador Peninsula from the island of Newfoundland, in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The strait is the northern outlet for the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the other two being the Cabot Strait and Strait of Canso. As such, it is also considered part of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway system. The strait is approximately 125 kilometres long and ranges from a maximum width of 60 km to just 15 km at it narrowest, the average width being 18 km.</p><br>
<h2>Origins of name</h2><br>
<p>The name is derived from Belle Isle (Beautiful Island), located at the extreme eastern end of the strait and roughly equidistant between Table Head, Labrador, and Cape Bauld, Newfoundland.</p><br>
<h2>Navigation and transport</h2><br>
<p>Navigation in the strait can be extremely hazardous with strong tidal currents interacting with the Labrador Current, depths reaching several hundred metres in places, sea ice for 8–10 months of the year, and variable weather conditions including gales and fog. While sea ice prevents year-round shipping, the Canadian Coast Guard maintains a vessel traffic service (VTS) to ensure collisions do not occur. The VTS is voluntary currently.</p><br>
<p>A ferry service operates at the western part of strait between St. Barbe, Newfoundland, and Blanc Sablon, Quebec. New road construction for the Trans-Labrador Highway resulted in the removal of ferry services to outports in the northeastern part of the strait in 2002.</p><br>
<p>The idea of building a fixed link across the strait between Labrador and Newfoundland, known as the Newfoundland-Labrador fixed link, has been raised numerous times in recent decades following an unsuccessful attempt to build a tunnel carrying electrical wires in the mid-1970s. If such a link were built, it would likely be a 17-km-long submerged rail tunnel. The proposal is meant to reduce the provinces reliance upon the Marine Atlantic ferry service to Nova Scotia, but the projects high costs and lack of suitable road network between Labrador and Quebec have been cited as major obstacles. The October 2003 provincial election resulted in the newly elected Progressive Conservative government announcing joint federal-provincial funding for a study of the concept. A 35 km submarine cable across the strait is under construction as part of the Lower Churchill Project.</p><br>
<p>Cabot Strait  is a strait in eastern Canada approximately 110 kilometres wide between Cape Ray, Newfoundland and Cape North, Cape Breton Island. It is the widest of the three outlets for the Gulf of Saint Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean, the others being the Strait of Belle Isle and Strait of Canso. It is named for the Genoese explorer Giovanni Caboto.</p><br>
<p>The straits bathymetry is varied, with the Laurentian Channel creating a deep trench through its centre, and comparatively shallow coastal waters closer to Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island. These bathymetric conditions have been known by mariners to cause rogue waves. The steep slope of the Laurentian Channel was the site of a disastrous submarine landslide at the southeastern end of the strait, triggered by the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake and leading to a tsunami that devastated communities along Newfoundlands south coast and parts of Cape Breton Island.</p><br>
<p>A strategically important waterway throughout Canadian and Newfoundland history, the strait is also an important international shipping route, being the primary waterway linking the Atlantic with inland ports on the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway.</p><br>
<p>The strait is crossed daily by the Marine Atlantic ferry service linking Channel-Port aux Basques, and North Sydney. Ferries have been operating across the strait since 1898 and a submarine telegraph cable was laid in 1856 as part of the transatlantic telegraph cable project.</p><br>
<p>An infamous location in the strait for shipwrecks during the age of sail, St. Paul&#39;s Island, came to be referred to as the "Graveyard of the Gulf" (of St. Lawrence).</p><br>
<p>In October 1942, German U-boat U-69 torpedoed and sank the unlit Newfoundland ferry, killing 137 people. Then on 25 November 1944 HMCS Shawinigan was torpedoed and sunk with all hands on board (91 crew) by U-1228.</p><br>
<p>Banks Island is one of the larger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Situated in the Inuvik Region, and part of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, of the Northwest Territories, it is separated from Victoria Island to its east by the Prince of Wales Strait and from the mainland by Amundsen Gulf to its south. The Beaufort Sea lies to its west, and to its northeast M&#39;Clure Strait separates the island from Prince Patrick Island and Melville Island.</p><br>
<p>It is home to barren-ground caribou, polar bears, and birds such as robins and swallows. Over 68,000 muskoxen also live on the island, the majority of the world&#39;s population. As of</p><br>
<p>the 2011 census it had a human population of 112, all in Sachs Harbour.</p><br>
<h2>European discovery</h2><br>
<p>Pre-Dorset cultural sites have been found that date from approximately 1500 BCE but European contact came much later. In 1820 it was seen from Melville Island by Sir William Edward Parry and named "Banks Land" in honour of Sir Joseph Banks. However, during the later exploration of the area by the McClure Arctic Expedition the island was marked on their maps as "Baring Island". McClure&#39;s ship, the HMS Investigator, was frozen in Prince of Wales Strait. That spring he sent out sledging parties and determined that Banks Island was an island. In the following year he almost circumnavigated the island but was again frozen in at Mercy Bay where he and his crew spent the next three before making their escape across the ice.</p><br>
<p>The only permanent settlement on the island is the Inuvialuit hamlet of Sachs Harbour (Ikhuak), on the southwest coast.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Banks Island covers an area 70,028 km&sup2; and it is the worlds 24th largest island and Canadas fifth largest island. It is about 380 km long, and at its widest point at the northern end, 290 km across. The highest point of the island is in the south, Durham Heights and rises to about 730 m. It is part of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and had a population of 112 in 2011, all in Sachs Harbour.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The island is treeless, with the tallest plant, the Arctic willow, growing occasionally to about the height of a person&#39;s knee but usually standing no taller than 10 cm.</p><br>
<p>Banks Island is home to two-thirds of the worlds population of lesser snow geese, which make their way across the Amundsen Gulf from the mainland. There is an annual goose hunt in the spring out of Sachs Harbour. The island is part of the tundra world biome, which has extremely cold winters. The island is home to barren-ground caribou, polar bears, muskoxen, and birds such as robins and swallows. Over 68,000 muskoxen live on the island, the majority of the worlds population.</p><br>
<p>Two federal migratory bird sanctuaries were founded on the island in 1961.</p><br>
<p>Aulavik National Park of Canada, a fly-in park, protects about 12,274 km&sup2; of Arctic lowlands at the northern end of the island.</p><br>
<p>The first confirmed grizzly–polar bear hybrid found in the wild was shot on Banks Island in April 2006, near Sachs Harbour.</p><br>
<h2>HMS Investigator</h2><br>
<p>In July 2010, Parks Canada archaeologists looking for found it 15 minutes after they started a sonar scan of Banks Island&#39;s Mercy Bay. The archaeology crew has no plans to raise the ship. They will do a thorough sonar scan of the area, then send a remotely operated vehicle.</p><br>
<p>The Belcher Islands  are an archipelago in the southeast part of Hudson Bay. The Belcher Islands are spread out over almost 3,000 km&sup2;. Administratively, they belong to the Qikiqtaaluk Region of the territory of Nunavut, Canada. The hamlet of Sanikiluaq  is on the north coast of Flaherty Island and is the southernmost in Nunavut. Along with Flaherty Island, the other large islands are Kugong Island, Tukarak Island, and Innetalling Island. Other main islands in the 1,500–island archipelago are Moore Island, Wiegand Island, Split Island, Snape Island and Mavor Island, while island groups include the Sleeper Islands, King George Islands, and Bakers Dozen Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before 1914, English-speaking cartographers knew very little about the Belcher Islands, which they showed on maps as specks, much smaller than their true extent. In that year a map showing them, drawn by George Weetaltuk, came into the hands of Robert Flaherty, and cartographers began to represent them more accurately. The islands are named for Royal Navy Admiral Sir Edward Belcher (1799-1877).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The geologic units of the Belcher Islands are Proterozoic in age. The exposed clastic sedimentary rocks, as well as volcanic and carbonate units record rifting and subsidence of the Superior craton during this period. There are two main volcanic sequences on the Belcher Islands called the Eskimo and overlying Flaherty volcanics. These volcanics form part of the Circum-Superior Belt.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>Several species of willow (Salix) form a large component of the native small shrubbery on the archipelago. These include rock willow (Salix vestita), bog willow (S. pedicellaris), and Labrador willow (S. argyrocarpa), as well as naturally occurring hybrids between S. arctica and S. glauca.</p><br>
<p>Other than in valley regions, trees cannot grow on the islands because of a lack of adequate soil.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The main wildlife consists of belugas, walrus, caribou, common eiders and snowy owls all which can be seen on the island year round. There is also a wide variety of fish that can be caught such as Arctic char, cod, capelin, lump fish, and sculpin. The historical relationship between the Sanikiluaq community and the eider is the subject of a feature length Canadian documentary film called People of a Feather. The director, cinematographer and biologist Joel Heath spent seven years on the project, writing biological articles on the eider.</p><br>
<p>In 1998 the Belcher Island caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) herd numbered 800.</p><br>
<p>The island of Maui  is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727.2 square miles  and is the 17th-largest island in the United States. Maui is part of the State of Hawaii and is the largest of Maui Countys four islands, which include Molokai, Lānai, and unpopulated Kahoolawe. In 2010, Maui had a population of 144,444, third-highest of the Hawaiian Islands, behind that of Oahu and Hawaii Island. Kahului is the largest census-designated place  on the island with a population of 26,337 and is the commercial and financial hub of the island. Wailuku is the seat of Maui County and is the third-largest CDP. Other significant places include Kīhei , Lahaina , Makawao, Pukalani, Pāia, Kula, Haikū, and Hāna.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Native Hawaiian tradition gives the origin of the island&#39;s name in the legend of Hawaiiloa, the navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. According to it, Hawaiiloa named the island after his son, who in turn was named for the demigod Māui. The earlier name of Maui was Ihikapalaumaewa. The Island of Maui is also called the "Valley Isle" for the large isthmus separating its northwestern and southeastern volcanic masses.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and topography</h2><br>
<p>Maui&#39;s diverse landscapes are the result of a unique combination of geology, topography, and climate. Each volcanic cone in the chain of the Hawaiian Islands is built of dark, iron-rich/quartz-poor rocks, which poured out of thousands of vents as highly fluid lava over a period of millions of years. Several of the volcanoes were close enough to each other that lava flows on their flanks overlapped one another, merging into a single island. Maui is such a "volcanic doublet," formed from two shield volcanoes that overlapped one another to form an isthmus between them.</p><br>
<p>The older, western volcano has been eroded considerably and is cut by numerous drainages, forming the peaks of the West Maui Mountains (in Hawaiian, Mauna Kahalawai). Puu Kukui is the highest of the peaks at 5,788 ft. The larger, younger volcano to the east, Haleakalā, rises to more than 10,000 ft above sea level, and measures 5 mi from seafloor to summit.</p><br>
<p>The eastern flanks of both volcanoes are cut by deeply incised valleys and steep-sided ravines that run downslope to the rocky, windswept shoreline. The valley-like Isthmus of Maui that separates the two volcanic masses was formed by sandy erosional deposits.</p><br>
<p>Mauis last eruption (originating in Haleakalās Southwest Rift Zone) occurred around 1790; two of the resulting lava flows are located (1) at Cape Kīnau between Āhihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southwest shore of East Maui, and (2) at Makaluapuna Point on Honokahua Bay on the northwest shore of West Maui. Although considered to be dormant by volcanologists, Haleakalā is certainly capable of further eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Maui is part of a much larger unit, Maui Nui, that includes the islands of Lānai, Kahoolawe, Molokai, and the now submerged Penguin Bank. During periods of reduced sea level, including as recently as 20,000 years ago, they are joined together as a single island due to the shallowness of the channels between them.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate of the Hawaiian Islands is characterized by a two-season year, tropical and uniform temperatures everywhere (except at high elevations), marked geographic differences in rainfall, high relative humidity, extensive cloud formations (except on the driest coasts and at high elevations), and dominant trade-wind flow (especially at elevations below a few thousand feet). Maui itself has a wide range of climatic conditions and weather patterns that are influenced by several different factors in the physical environment:</p><br>
<p>Half of Maui is situated within 5 mi of the islands coastline. This, and the extreme insularity of the Hawaiian Islands account for the strong marine influence on Mauis climate.</p><br>
<p>Gross weather patterns are typically determined by elevation and orientation towards the Trade winds (prevailing air flow comes from the northeast).</p><br>
<p>Maui&#39;s rugged, irregular topography produces marked variations in conditions. Air swept inland on the Trade winds is shunted one way or another by the mountains, valleys, and vast open slopes. This complex three-dimensional flow of air results in striking variations in wind speed, cloud formation, and rainfall.</p><br>
<p>Maui displays a unique and diverse set of climatic conditions, each of which is specific to a loosely defined sub-region of the island. These sub-regions are defined by major physiographic features (such as mountains and valleys) and by location on the windward or leeward side of the island.</p><br>
<h4>Subregions</h4><br>
<p>Windward lowlands – Below 2,000 ft on north-to-northeast sides of an island. Roughly perpendicular to direction of prevailing trade winds. Moderately rainy; frequent trade wind-induced showers. Skies are often cloudy to partly cloudy. Air temperatures are more uniform (and mild) than those of other regions.</p><br>
<p>Leeward lowlands – Daytime temperatures are a little higher and nighttime temperatures are lower than in windward locations. Dry weather is prevalent, with the exception of sporadic showers that drift over the mountains to windward and during short-duration storms.</p><br>
<p>Interior lowlands – Intermediate conditions, often sharing characteristics of other lowland sub-regions. Occasionally experience intense local afternoon showers from well-developed clouds that formed due to local daytime heating.</p><br>
<p>Leeward side high-altitude mountain slopes with high rainfall – Extensive cloud cover and rainfall all year long. Mild temperatures are prevalent, but humidity is higher than any other sub-region.</p><br>
<p>Leeward side lower mountain slopes – Rainfall is higher than on the adjacent leeward lowlands, but much less than at similar altitudes on the windward side; however, maximum rainfall usually occurs leeward of the crests of lower mountains. Temperatures are higher than on the rainy slopes of the windward sides of mountains; cloud cover is almost as extensive.</p><br>
<p>High mountains – Above about 5,000 ft on Haleakalā, rainfall decreases rapidly with elevation. Relative humidity may be ten percent or less. The lowest temperatures in the state are experienced in this region: air temperatures below freezing are common.</p><br>
<h4>Rainfall</h4><br>
<p>Showers are very common; while some of these are very heavy, the vast majority are light and brief. Even the heaviest rain showers are seldom accompanied by thunder and lightning. Throughout the lowlands in summer an overwhelming dominance of trade winds produces a drier season. At one extreme, the annual rainfall averages 17 in to 20 in or less in leeward coastal areas, such as the shoreline from Maalaea Bay to Kaupo, and near the summit of Haleakalā. At the other extreme, the annual average rainfall exceeds 300 in along the lower windward slopes of Haleakalā, particularly along the Hāna Highway. "Big Bog," a spot on the edge of Haleakala National Park overlooking Hana at about 5,400 feet elevation had an estimated mean annual rainfall of 404.4 inches over the 30-year period of 1978 to 2007. If the islands of the State of Hawaii did not exist, the average annual rainfall on the same patch of water would be about 25 in. Instead, the mountainous topography of Maui and the other islands induce an actual average of about 70 in.</p><br>
<p>In the lowlands rainfall is most likely to occur throughout the year during the night or morning hours, and least likely in mid-afternoon. The most pronounced daily variations in rainfall occur during the summer because most summer rainfall consists of trade winds showers that most often occur at night. Winter rainfall in the lowlands is the result of storm activity, which is as likely to occur in the daytime as at night. Rainfall variability is far greater during the winter, when occasional storms contribute appreciably to rainfall totals. With such wide swings in rainfall, it is inevitable that there are occasional droughts, sometimes causing economic losses. These occur when winter rains fail to produce sufficient significant rainstorms, impacting normally dry areas outside the trade winds that depend on them the most. The winter of 2011-2012 produced extreme drought on the leeward sides of Moloka&#39;i, Maui, and Island of Hawaii.</p><br>
<h4>Microclimates</h4><br>
<p>The blend of warm tropical sunshine, varying humidity, ocean breezes and trade winds, and varying elevations createa variety of microclimatess. Although the Island of Maui is small, it can feel quite different in each district resulting in a unique selection of micro-climates that are typical to each of its distinctive locations: Central Maui; leeward South Maui and West Maui; windward North Shore and East Maui; and Upcountry Maui.</p><br>
<p>Although Maui’s daytime temperatures average between 75 and 90 degrees year round, evening temperatures are about 15 degrees cooler in the more humid windward areas, about 18 degrees cooler in the dryer leeward areas, and cooler yet in higher elevations.</p><br>
<p>Central Maui consists primarily of Kahului and Wailuku. Kahului is literally the center of the island, and tends to keep steady, high temperatures throughout the year. The micro-climate in Kahului can be at times muggy, but it usually feels relatively dry and is often very breezy. The Wailuku area is set closer to the West Maui Mountain range. Here, more rainfall will be found throughout the year, and higher humidity levels.</p><br>
<p>Leeward side includes South Maui (Kihei, Wailea and Makena) and West Maui (Lahaina, Kaanapali and Kapalua). These areas are typically drier, with higher daytime temperature (up to 92 degrees), and the least amount of rainfall. (An exception is the high-altitude, unpopulated West Maui summit, which boasts up to 400 inches of rainfall per year on its north and east side.)</p><br>
<p>Windward side includes the North Shore (Paia and Haiku) and East Maui (Keanae, Hana and Kipahulu). Located in the prevailing, northeast trade winds, these areas have heavier rainfall levels, which increase considerably at higher elevations.</p><br>
<p>Upcountry Maui (Makawao, Pukalani, and Kula) at the 1,700- to 4,500-foot levels, provides mild heat (70s and low 80s) during the day and cool evenings. The higher the elevation, the cooler the evenings. During Maui&#39;s winter, Upper Kula can be as cold as 40 degrees in the early morning hours, and the Haleakala summit can dip below freezing.</p><br>
<p>An exception to the normal pattern is the occasional winter “Kona storms” which bring rainfall to the South and West areas accompanied by high southwesterly winds (opposite of the prevailing trade wind direction).</p><br>
<h3>Natural history</h3><br>
<p>Maui is a leading whale-watching center in the Hawaiian Islands due to Humpback whales wintering in the sheltered Auau Channel between the islands of Maui county. The whales migrate approximately 3,500 mi from Alaskan waters each autumn and spend the winter months mating and birthing in the warm waters off Maui, with most leaving by the end of April. The whales are typically sighted in pods: small groups of several adults, or groups of a mother, her calf, and a few suitors. Humpbacks are an endangered species protected by USA federal and Hawaii state law. There are estimated to be about 22,000 humpbacks in the North Pacific. Although Maui&#39;s Humpback face many dangers, due to pollution, high-speed commercial vessels, and military sonar testing, their numbers have increased rapidly in recent years, estimated at 7% growth per year.</p><br>
<p>Maui is home to a large rainforest on the northeastern flanks of Haleakalā, which serves as the drainage basin for the rest of the island. The extremely difficult terrain has prevented exploitation of much of the forest.</p><br>
<p>Agricultural and coastal industrial land use has had an adverse effect on much of Mauis coastal regions. Many of Mauis extraordinary coral reefs have been damaged by pollution, run-off, and tourism, although finding sea turtles, dolphins, and Hawaiis celebrated tropical fish, is still common. Leeward Maui used to boast a vibrant dry cloud forest&#39; as well but this was destroyed by human activities over the last three hundred years.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Polynesians from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands were the original people to populate Maui. The Tahitians introduced the kapu system, a strict social order that affected all aspects of life and became the core of Hawaiʻian culture. Modern Hawaiʻian history began in the mid-18th century. Kamehameha I, king of the island of Hawaiʻi, invaded Maui in 1790 and fought the inconclusive Battle of Kepaniwai, but returned to Hawaiʻi to battle a rival, finally subduing Maui a few years later.</p><br>
<p>On November 26, 1778, explorer James Cook became the first European to see Maui. Cook never set foot on the island because he was unable to find a suitable landing. The first European to visit Maui was the French admiral Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, who landed on the shores of what is now known as La Perouse Bay on May 29, 1786. More Europeans followed: traders, whalers, loggers (e.g., of sandalwood) and missionaries. The latter began to arrive from New England in 1823, settling in Lahaina, which at that time was the capital. They clothed the natives, banned them from dancing hula, and greatly altered the culture. The missionaries taught reading and writing, created the 12-letter Hawaiian alphabet, started a printing press in Lahaina, and began writing the islands&#39; history, which until then was transmitted orally. Ironically, the missionaries both altered and preserved the native culture. The religious work altered the culture while the literacy efforts preserved native history and language. Missionaries started the first school in Lahaina, which still exists today: Lahainaluna Mission School, which opened in 1831.</p><br>
<p>At the height of the whaling era (1843–1860), Lahaina was a major center. In one season over 400 ships visitedm with up toh 100 anchored at one time in Lāhainā Roads. Ships tended to stay for weeks rather than days, fostering extended drinking and the rise of prostitution, against which the missionaries vainly battled. Whaling declined steeply at the end of the 19th century as petroleum replaced whale oil.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha&#39;s descendants reigned until 1872. They were followed by rulers from another ancient family of chiefs, including Queen Liliʻuokalani, deposed in the 1893 when overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii by American business interests. One year later, the Republic of Hawaii was founded. The island was annexed by the United States in 1898 and made a territory in 1900. Hawaiʻi became the 50th USA state in 1959.</p><br>
<p>In 1937, Vibora Luviminda trade union conducted the last strike action of an ethnic nature in the Hawaiʻian Islands against four Maui sugarcane plantations, demanding higher wages and the dismissal of five foremen. Manuel Fagel and nine other strike leaders were arrested, and charged with kidnapping a worker. Fagel spent four months in jail while the strike continued. Eventually, Vibora Luviminda made its point and the workers won a 15% increase in wages after 85 days on strike, but there was no written contract signed.</p><br>
<p>Maui was centrally involved in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a staging center, training base, and rest and relaxation site. At the peak in 1943-44, more than 100,000 soldiers were there. The main base of the 4th Marine Division was in Haiku. Beaches were used to practice landings and train in marine demolition and sabotage.</p><br>
<h2>Modern development</h2><br>
<p>The island experienced rapid population growth through 2007, with Kīhei one of the most rapidly growing towns in the United States (see chart, below). The island attracted many retirees, adding service providers for them to the rapidly increasing number of tourists. Population growth produced strains, including traffic congestion, housing affordability, and access to water.</p><br>
<p>Most recent years have brought droughts, resulting in the Īao aquifer being drawn at possibly unsustainable rates above 18 million USA gallons (68,000 m) per day. Recent estimates indicate that the total potential supply of potable water on Maui is around 476 million USA gallons (1,800,000 m) per day, virtually all of which runs off into the ocean.</p><br>
<p>Sugar cane cultivation once used over 80% of the island&#39;s managed water supply. One pound of refined sugar requires one ton of water to produce. Water for sugar cultivation comes mostly from the streams of East Maui, routed though a network of tunnels and ditches hand dug by Chinese labor in the 19th century. In 2006, the town of Paia successfully petitioned the County against mixing in treated water from wells known to be contaminated with both EDB and DBCP from former pineapple cultivation in the area (Environment Hawaii, 1996). Agricultural companies have been released from all future liability for these chemicals (County of Maui, 1999). In 2009, the Office of Hawaiian Affairs and others successfully argued in court that sugar companies should reduce the amount of water they take from four streams.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, Emil Tedeschi of the Napa Valley winegrower family of Calistoga, California, established the first Hawaiian commercial winery, the Tedeschi Winery at Ulupalakua Ranch.</p><br>
<p>In the 2000s, controversies over whether to continue rapid real-estate development, vacation rentals in which homeowners rent their homes to visitors, and Hawaii Superferry preoccupied local residents. In 2003, Corey Ryder of the Earth Foundation gave a presentation regarding the unique situation on Maui, "Hazard mitigation, safety & security", before the Maui County Council. In 2009, the county approved a 1,000-unit development in South Maui in the teeth of the financial crisis. Vacation rentals are now strictly limited, with greater enforcement than previously. Hawaii Superferry, which offered transport between Maui and Oahu, ceased operations in May 2009, ended by a court decision that required environmental studies from which Governor Linda Lingle had exempted the operator.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The two major industries on Maui are agriculture and tourism. Government research groups and high technology companies have discovered that Maui has a business environment favorable for growth in those sectors as well. Agriculture value-added enterprises are growing rapidly.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>Coffee, macadamia, papaya, tropical flowers, sugar and fresh pineapple are just some of Hawaii&#39;s premium exports and are a prime example of its diversified agriculture. Maui Land & Pineapple Company and Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company (HC&S, a subsidiary of Alexander and Baldwin Company) dominated agricultural activity. HC&S produced sugarcane on about 37,000 acre of the Maui central valley, the largest sugarcane operation that remained in Hawaii. In January 2016, Alexander and Baldwin announced the end of sugar production on Maui, effective the end of 2016.</p><br>
<p>A controversial feature of Maui sugarcane production has been the harvesting method of controlled cane field fires for nine months of the year. Burns reduce the crop to bare canes just before harvesting. The fires produce smoke that towers above the Maui central valley most early mornings, and ash (locally referred to as "Maui snow") that is carried downwind (often towards north Kīhei).</p><br>
<p>In November 2009 Maui Land & Pineapple Company announced it was ceasing pineapple growing operations on Maui effective January 1, 2010. The assets of Maui Land & Pineapple Company were purchased by Haliimaile Pineapple Co. which included five former Maui Pineapple Co. executives. Haliimaile Pineapple Co. assumed operations from Maui Land & Pineapple Co. on Jan. 1, 2010.</p><br>
<p>In November 2014, the majority of voters on Maui passed a moratorium on genetically engineered crops, followed one day later by Monsanto and other businesses filing a lawsuit to challenge.</p><br>
<h3>Information technology</h3><br>
<p>The Maui High Performance Computing Center (MHPCC) at the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory in Kīhei is a United States Air Force research laboratory center which is managed by the University of Hawaii. It provides more than 10 million hours of computing time per year to the research, science, and military communities.</p><br>
<p>Another promoter of high technology on the island is the Maui Research and Technology Center, also located in Kihei. The MRTC is a program of the High Technology Development Corporation (HTDC), an agency of the State of Hawaii, whose focus is to facilitate the growth of Hawaii&#39;s commercial high-technology sector.</p><br>
<p>Maui is also an important center for advanced astronomical research. The Haleakala Observatory was Hawaii&#39;s first astronomical research and development facility at the Maui Space Surveillance Site (MSSS) electro-optical facility. "At the 10,023-foot summit of the long dormant volcano Haleakala, operational satellite tracking facilities are co-located with a research and development facility providing superb data acquisition and communication support. The high elevation, dry climate, and freedom from light pollution offer virtually year-round observation of satellites, missiles, man-made orbital debris, and astronomical objects."</p><br>
<p>The unemployment rate reached a low of 1.7% in December 2006, rising to 9% in March 2009 before falling back to 4.6% by the end of 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<h3>Snorkeling</h3><br>
<p>Snorkeling is one of the most popular activities on Maui. There are over 30 beaches and bays to snorkel at around the island.</p><br>
<h3>Windsurfing</h3><br>
<p>Maui is a well known destination for windsurfing. Kanaha Beach Park is a very well-known windsurfing spot and may have stand-up paddle boarders or surfers if there are waves and no wind. Windsurfing has evolved on Maui since the early 1980s when it was recognized as an ideal location to test equipment and publicize the sport.</p><br>
<h3>Surfing</h3><br>
<p>One of the most popular sports in Hawaii. Hookipa Beach Park is one of Mauis most famous surfing and windsurfing spots. Other famous or frequently surfed areas include Slaughterhouse Beach, Honolua Bay, Pe&#39;ahi (Jaws), and Fleming Beach. The north side of Maui absorbs the most swell during the winter season and the south and west in the summer time. Due to island blocking, summer south swells tend to be weak and rare.</p><br>
<h3>Kiteboarding and kitesurfing</h3><br>
<p>One of the newest sports on Maui is Kiteboarding/Surfing. Kanaha Beach Park is where beginner, intermediate and advanced Kiters gather. It is known as Kite Beach. Kiters share the water with Windsurfers who have dominated the area since the early 1980s. Since 2008 there has been an explosion in the number of Kiters mostly due to advances in equipment and safety.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The big tourist spots in Maui include the Hāna Highway, Haleakalā National Park, Iao Valley, and Lahaina.</p><br>
<p>The Hāna Highway runs along the east coast of Maui, curving around mountains and passing by black sand beaches and waterfalls. Haleakalā National Park is home to Haleakalā, a dormant volcano. Lahaina is one of the main attractions on the island with an entire street of shops and restaurants which leads to a wharf where many set out for a sunset cruise or whale watching journey. Snorkeling can be done at almost any beach along the Maui coast. Surfing and windsurfing are also popular on Maui.</p><br>
<p>The main tourist areas are West Maui (Kāanapali, Lahaina, Nāpili-Honokōwai, Kahana, Napili, Kapalua) and South Maui (Kīhei, Wailea-Mākena). The main port of call for cruise ships is located in Kahului. There are also smaller ports located at Lahaina Harbor (located in Lahaina) and Maalaea Harbor (located between Lahaina and Kihei).</p><br>
<p>Maui County welcomed 2,207,826 tourists in 2004 rising to 2,639,929 in 2007 with total tourist expenditures north of US$3.5 billion for the Island of Maui alone. While the island of Oahu is most popular with Japanese tourists, the Island of Maui appeals to visitors mostly from the USA mainland and Canada: in 2005, there were 2,003,492 domestic arrivals on the island, compared to 260,184 international arrivals.</p><br>
<p>While winning many travel industry awards as Best Island In The World in recent years concerns have been raised by locals and environmentalists about the overdevelopment of Maui. A number of activist groups, including Save Makena have gone as far as taking the government to court to protect the rights of local citizens.</p><br>
<p>Throughout 2008 Maui suffered a major loss in tourism compounded by the spring bankruptcies of Aloha Airlines and ATA Airlines. The pullout in May of the second of three Norwegian Cruise Line ships also hurt. Pacific Business News reported a $166 million loss in revenue for Maui tourism businesses.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Maui Public Bus Transit System is a county-funded program that provides transportation around the island for nominal fares.</p><br>
<h3>Airports</h3><br>
<p>Three airports provide air service to Maui:</p><br>
<p>Hana Airport provides regional service to eastern Maui</p><br>
<p>Kahului Airport in central Maui is an international airport and the island&#39;s busiest</p><br>
<p>Kapalua Airport provides regional service to western Maui</p><br>
<h2>Health care</h2><br>
<p>There are two hospitals on the island of Maui. The first, Maui Memorial Medical Center, is the only acute care hospital in Maui County. It is centrally located in the town of Wailuku approximately 4 miles from Kahului Airport. The second, Kula Hospital, is a critical access hospital located on the southern half on the island in the rural town of Kula. Kula Hospital, along with Lanai Community Hospital (which is located in Maui County but on the neighboring island of Lanai), are affiliates of Maui Memorial Medical Center. All three hospitals are open 24/7 for emergency access. Although not technically a hospital or emergency room, Hana Health Clinic (or Hana Medical Center), located in the remote town of Hana on the southeastern side of the island, works in cooperation with American Medical Response and Maui Memorial Medical Center to stabilize and transport patients with emergent medical conditions. It too is open 24/7 for urgent care and emergency access.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Maui is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Funchal, Madeira, Portugal</p><br>
<p>Kauai or Kauai is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 562.3 square miles, it is the fourth largest of these islands and the 21st largest island in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kauai lies 105 mi across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Oahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park.</p><br>
<p>The United States Census Bureau defines Kauai as census tracts 401 through 409 of Kauai County, Hawaii, which comprises all of the county except for the islands of Ka&#39;ula, Lehua and Niihau. The 2010 United States Census population of the island was 67,091. The most populous town was Kapaa.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1778, Captain James Cook arrived at Waimea Bay, the first European known to have reached the Hawaiian islands. He named the archipelago after his patron the 6th Earl of Sandwich, George Montagu.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of King Kamehameha, the islands of Kauai and Niihau were the last Hawaiian Islands to join his Kingdom of Hawaii. Their ruler, Kaumualii, resisted Kamehameha for years. King Kamehameha twice prepared a huge armada of ships and canoes to take the islands by force, and twice failed; once due to a storm, and once due to an epidemic. In the face of the threat of a further invasion, however, Kaumualii decided to join the kingdom without bloodshed, and became Kamehameha&#39;s vassal in 1810. He ceded the island to the Kingdom of Hawaii upon his death in 1824.</p><br>
<h3>Schäffer affair</h3><br>
<p>In 1815, a ship from the Russian-American Company was wrecked on the island. In 1816, an agreement was signed by Kaumualiʻi to allow the Russians to build Fort Elizabeth. It was an attempt by Kaumuali’i to gain support from the Russians against Kamehameha I. Construction was begun in 1817, but in July of that year under mounting resistance of Native Hawaiians and American traders the Russians were expelled.</p><br>
<h3>Old Sugar Mill of Koloa</h3><br>
<p>In 1835, Old Koloa Town opened a sugar mill.</p><br>
<h3>Etymology and language</h3><br>
<p>Hawaiian narrative locates the name&#39;s origin in the legend of Hawaiiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Kauai after a favorite son; a possible translation of Kauai is "place around the neck", describing how a father would carry a favorite child. Another possible translation is "food season".</p><br>
<p>Kauai was known for its distinct dialect of the Hawaiian language; this survives on Niihau. While the standard language today adopts the dialect of Hawaii island, which has the sound, the Kauai dialect was known for pronouncing this as. In effect, Kauai dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian, while "standard" Hawaii dialect has changed it to the. Therefore, the native name for Kauai was said as Tauai, and the major settlement of Kapaa would have been pronounced as Tapaa.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kauai&#39;s origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot. At approximately six million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. The highest peak on this mountainous island is Kawaikini at 5,243 ft.</p><br>
<p>The second highest peak is Mount Waialeale near the center of the island, 5,148 ft above sea level. One of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of 460 in, is located on the east side of Mount Waialeale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, carving out canyons with many scenic waterfalls. On the west side of the island, Waimea town is located at the mouth of the Waimea River, whose flow formed Waimea Canyon, one of the world&#39;s most scenic canyons, which is part of Waimea Canyon State Park. At 3,000 ft deep, Waimea Canyon is often referred to as "The Grand Canyon of the Pacific". Kokeo Point lies on the south side of the island. The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a wild setting, including kayaking past the beaches, or hiking on the trail along the coastal cliffs. The headland, Kuahonu Point, is on the south-east of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Kauai’s climate is tropical, with generally humid and stable conditions year round, although weather phenomena and infrequent storms have caused instances of extreme weather. At the lower elevations the annual precipitation varies from an average of about 50 inches on the windward (northeastern) shore, to less than 20 inches on the (southwestern) leeward side of the island. Average temperature in Lihu&#39;e, the county seat, ranges from 78 &deg;F in February to 85 &deg;F in August and September. Kauai’s mountainous regions offer cooler temperatures and provide a pleasant contrast to the warm coastal areas. At the Kōkeʻe state park, 3,200 - ASL, day temperatures vary from an average of 45 &deg;F in January to 68 &deg;F in July. In the winter temperatures have been known to drop down to the 30s and 40s at Kōkeʻe state park, which holds an unofficial record low of 29 &deg;F recorded in February 1986 at Kanaloahuluhulu Meadow.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation in Kauai&#39;s mountainous regions averages 50 – annually. Situated about 10 mi southeast of Kōkeʻe state park at an elevation of 5,075 ft, is the Mt. Waialeale rain gauge. Mt. Waialeale is often cited in literature as being the wettest spot on earth, although this has been disputed. Based on data for the period from 1931 through 1960 the average yearly precipitation was 460 inch (USA Environmental Science Services Administration, 1968). Between 1949 and 2004 the average yearly precipitation at Mt. Waialeale was 374 inch.</p><br>
<p>Not only does Kauai hold a record in average yearly precipitation, it also holds a record in hourly precipitation. During a storm on January 24–25, 1956, a rain gauge at Kauai’s former Kilauea Sugar Plantation recorded a record 12 inch of precipitation in just 60 minutes. The 12 inch value for one hour is an underestimate, since the rain gauge overflowed, which may have resulted in an error by as much as an inch. An accurate measurement may have exceeded Holt, Missouri&#39;s world record 60-minute rainfall of 12 inches in 42 minutes on June 22, 1947.</p><br>
<h3>Time zone</h3><br>
<p>Hawaii Standard Time is observed on Kauai year-round. When most states are on daylight saving time, for example, the time on Kauai is three hours behind the West Coast of the United States and six hours behind the East Coast.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Tourism is Kauais largest industry. In 2007, 1,271,000 people visited Kauai. The two largest groups were from the continental United States (84% of all visitors) and Japan (3%). As of 2003, there were a total of approximately 27,000 jobs on Kauai, of which the largest sector was accommodation/food services (26%, 6,800 jobs) followed by government (15%) and retail (14.5%), with agriculture accounting for 2.9% (780 jobs) and educational services providing 0.7% (183 jobs). In terms of income, the various sectors that constitute the visitors industry accounted for one third of Kauais income. Employment is dominated by small businesses, with 87% of all non-farm businesses having fewer than 20 employees. As of 2003, Kauais unemployment rate was 3.9%, compared to 3.0% for the entire state and 5.7% for the United States as a whole. Kauai&#39;s poverty rate was 10.5%, compared to the contiguous 48 states at 10.7%.</p><br>
<p>As of mid-2004, the median price of a single-family home was $528,000, a 40% increase over 2003. As of 2003, Kauais percentage of home ownership, 48%, was significantly lower than the States 64%, and vacation homes were a far larger part of the housing stock than the Statewide percentage (Kauai 15%, State 5%). The housing prices decreased significantly in 2008. As of Spring 2014 the median price had risen to about $400,000.</p><br>
<p>From the 1830s through the mid-20th century, sugarcane plantations were Kauais most important industry. In 1835 the first sugarcane plantation was founded on Kauai, and for the next century the industry would dominate the economy of Hawaii. Most of that land is now used for ranching. Kauais sole remaining sugar operation, the 118-year-old Gay & Robinson Plantation, plans to convert its operation to cultivating and processing sugarcane ethanol.</p><br>
<p>Kauai is home to the USA Navy&#39;s "Barking Sands" Pacific Missile Range Facility, on the sunny and dry western shore. HF ("shortwave") radio station WWVH, sister station to WWV and WWVB in Fort Collins, Colorado, is located on the west coast of Kauai about 3 mi south of Barking Sands. WWVH, WWV and WWVB are operated by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology, broadcasting standard time and frequency information to the public.</p><br>
<p>Land in Kauaʻi is very fertile; farmers raise many varieties of fruit and other crops. Guava, coffee, sugarcane, mango, banana, papaya, avocado, star fruit, kava, noni and pineapple are all cultivated on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and cities</h2><br>
<p>The city of Līhue, on the islands southeast coast, is the seat of Kauai County and the second largest city on the island. Kapaa, on the "Coconut Coast" (site of an old coconut plantation) about 6 mi north of Līhue, has a population of nearly 10,000, or about 50% greater than Līhue. Princeville, on the islands north side, was once the capital of Kauai.</p><br>
<p>Cities and towns on Kauai range in population from the roughly 9,500 people in Kapaa to tiny hamlets. The list below lists the larger or more notable of those from the northernmost end of Hawaii Route 560 to the western terminus of Hawaii Route 50</p><br>
<p>Haʻena State Park</p><br>
<p>Wainiha</p><br>
<p>Hanalei</p><br>
<p>Princeville</p><br>
<p>Kalihiwai</p><br>
<p>Kilauea</p><br>
<p>Anahola</p><br>
<p>Kapaa (largest town by population on Kauai)</p><br>
<p>Wailua</p><br>
<p>Hanamāulu</p><br>
<p>Līhue (second-largest by population)</p><br>
<p>Poipū</p><br>
<p>Kōloa</p><br>
<p>Lāwai</p><br>
<p>Kalāheo</p><br>
<p>Eleele</p><br>
<p>Hanapēpe</p><br>
<p>Kaumakani</p><br>
<p>Waimea</p><br>
<p>Kekaha</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Air</h3><br>
<p>Located on the southeastern side of the island, Lihue Airport is the aviation gateway to Kauai. Līhue Airport has direct routes to Honolulu, Kahului/Maui, the United States mainland, and Vancouver, Canada.</p><br>
<h3>Highways</h3><br>
<p>Several state highways serve Kauaʻi County:</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 50, also known as Kaumualiʻi Highway, is a thirty-three mile road that stretches from Hawaii Route 56 at the junction of Rice Street in Līhue to a point approximately 1/5 mile north of the northernmost entrance of the Pacific Missile Range Facility on the far western shore.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 58 stretches 2 mi from Route 50 in Līhue to the junction of Wapaa Road with Hawaii 51 near Nawiliwili Harbor on Kauai.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 56, also known as Kuhio Highway, runs 28 mi from Hawaii Route 50 at the junction of Rice Street in Līhue to the junction of Hawaii Route 560 in Princeville.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 560 passes 10 mi from the junction of Route 56 in Princeville and dead ends at Keʻe Beach in Haʻena State Park.</p><br>
<p>Other major highways that link other parts of the Island to the main highways of Kauaʻi are:</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 55 covers 7.6 mi from the junction of Route 50 in Kekaha to meet with Hawaii Route 550 south of Kokeʻe State Park in the Waimea Canyon.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 550 spans 15 mi from Route 50 in Waimea to Kōkeʻe State Park.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 540 goes 4 mi from Route 50 in Kalaheo to Route 50 in Eleʻele. The road is mainly an access to residential areas and Kauai Coffee.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 530, also called Kōloa Road, stretches 3.4 mi from Route 50 between Kalaheo and Lawai to Route 520 in Koloa. The road is mainly an alternative to Route 520 for travel from the west side to Poʻipū.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 520 runs 5 mi from the "Tunnel of Trees" at Route 50 to Poʻipū on the south shore.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 570 covers 1 mi from Route 56 in Līhue to Līhue Airport.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 580 spans 5 mi from Route 56 in Wailua to where the road is no longer serviced just south of the Wailua Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 581 passes 5 mi from Route 580 in the Wailua Homesteads to a roundabout just west of Kapaʻa Town.</p><br>
<p>Hawaii Route 583, also known as Maalo Road, stretches 3.9 mi from Route 56 just north of Līhue to dead-end at Wailua Falls Overlook in the interior.</p><br>
<h3>Hawaii Scenic Byway</h3><br>
<p>Holo Holo Koloa Scenic Byway, this state designated scenic byway runs over 19 mi and connects many of Kauai&#39;s most historical and cultural sights such as the Maluhia Road (Tree Tunnel), Puhi (Spouting Horn), The National Tropical Botanical Gardens, and the Salt Beds.</p><br>
<h3>Mass transit</h3><br>
<p>The Kauai Bus is the public transportation service of the County of Kauai.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Kauai is home to thousands of wild chickens, or moa in Hawaiian, who have few natural predators, as the mongoose was never introduced in Kauai as it has been on other Hawaiian islands. Kauai&#39;s chickens originated from the original Polynesian settlers, who brought them as a food source. They have since bred with European chickens that have gotten free from farms and cockfighting breeders.</p><br>
<p>The Kauai Heritage Center of Hawaiian Culture and the Arts was founded in 1998. Their mission is to nurture a greater sense of appreciation and respect for the Hawaiian culture. They offer classes in Hawaiian language, hula, lei and cordage making, the lunar calendar and chanting, plus trips to cultural sites.</p><br>
<p>Kaua&#39;i is home to many shave ice shops, a tradition in the islands.</p><br>
<p>Alakai Wilderness Area</p><br>
<p>Allerton Garden</p><br>
<p>Bell stone</p><br>
<p>Camp Naue YMCA</p><br>
<p>Fern Grotto</p><br>
<p>Haʻena State Park</p><br>
<p>Hanalei Bay</p><br>
<p>Hoʻopiʻi Falls</p><br>
<p>Honopū Valley</p><br>
<p>Kōkee State Park</p><br>
<p>Limahuli Garden and Preserve</p><br>
<p>Makaleha Mountains</p><br>
<p>Makauwahi Cave Reserve</p><br>
<p>McBryde Garden</p><br>
<p>Moir Gardens</p><br>
<p>Moloaa Bay</p><br>
<p>Na &#39;Aina Kai Botanical Gardens</p><br>
<p>Nā Pali Coast State Park</p><br>
<p>Opaekaa Falls</p><br>
<p>Pao&#39;a Point</p><br>
<p>Poipu Beach Park</p><br>
<p>Polihale State Park</p><br>
<p>Queen&#39;s Bath</p><br>
<p>Sleeping Giant (Nounou Mountain)</p><br>
<p>Spouting Horn</p><br>
<p>Wailua River</p><br>
<p>Waimea Canyon State Park</p><br>
<h2>In films</h2><br>
<p>The island of Kauai has been featured in more than seventy Hollywood movies and television shows, including the musical South Pacific and Disneys 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch along with its franchises three sequel films (2003s Stitch! The Movie, 2005s Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, and 2006s Leroy & Stitch) and first television series (Lilo & Stitch: The Series). Scenes from South Pacific were filmed in the vicinity of Hanalei. Waimea Canyon was used in the filming of the 1993 film Jurassic Park. Parts of the island were also used for the opening scenes of the Indiana Jones film Raiders of the Lost Ark. Other movies filmed here include Six Days Seven Nights, the 1976 version King Kong and John Fords 1963 film Donovan&#39;s Reef. Recent films include Tropic Thunder and a biopic of Bethany Hamilton titled Soul Surfer. A scene in the opening credits of popular TV show M*A*S*H was filmed in Kauai (helicopter flying over mountain top). Some scenes from Just Go with It, George of the Jungle and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides were also filmed in Kauai. A Perfect Getaway is set in Kauai.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the 2002 film Dragonfly were filmed there (although the people and the land were presented as South American) and the producers hired extras (at least three with speaking parts) from the ancient Hawaiian native population, which seeks to preserve its cultural heritage, including the pre-USA name of these two islands, Atooi or Tauai.</p><br>
<p>Major acts of two Elvis Presley films, 1962s Blue Hawaii and 1966s Paradise, Hawaiian Style, were filmed at various locations on Kauai. Both films boast scenes shot at the famous Coco Palms resort. Hurricane Iniki destroyed the Coco Palms and it was subsequently never rebuilt. However, Paradise, Hawaiian Style in particular, showcases the resort at its peak for posterity&#39;s sake. Coco Palms resort is now in the process of being torn down and rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>The Descendants, a film by Alexander Payne released in November 2011 and featuring George Clooney as lead actor, has major parts shot in Kauai, where the main character and his cousins own ancestral lands which they are considering selling. The film is based on the 2007 novel by the Hawaiian writer Kaui Hart Hemmings.</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi is the largest island located in the USA state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeastern-most of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of volcanic islands in the North Pacific Ocean. With an area of 4,028 square miles, it has 63% of the Hawaiian archipelago&#39;s combined landmass, and is the largest island in the United States. However, it only has 13% of Hawaiʻi’s people. The island of Hawaiʻi is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The island is often referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi, the Big Island, or Hawaiʻi Island to distinguish it from the state. Administratively, the whole island is encompassed by Hawaiʻi County.</p><br>
<p>As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079. The county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County (see List of counties in Hawaii).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. Other accounts attribute the name to the legendary realm of Hawaiki, a place from which some Polynesian people are said to have originated, the place where they go in the afterlife, or the realm of the gods and goddesses. Captain James Cook, the English explorer and navigator who was the captain of the first European expedition that discovered the Hawaiian Islands, called them the "Sandwich Islands" after his patron, the Earl of Sandwich. Cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ship&#39;s boat.</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi was the home island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after several years of war, and gave the kingdom and the island chain the name of his native island.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the USA Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 5,086 square miles, of which 4,028 square miles is land and 1,058 square miles (20.8%) is water. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the states land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States.</p><br>
<p>At its greatest dimension, the island is 93 mi across. It has a land area of 4,028 square miles comprising 62% of the Hawaiian Islands land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the worlds tallest mountain, taller than Mount Everest is, since the base of Mount Everest is above sea level.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanism</h3><br>
<p>The island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. These are (from oldest to youngest):</p><br>
<p>Geological evidence from exposures of old surfaces on the south and west flanks of Mauna Loa led to the proposal that two ancient volcanic shields (named Ninole and Kulani) were all but buried by the younger Mauna Loa. Geologists now consider these "outcrops" to be part of the earlier building of Mauna Loa. Another volcano which has already disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona.</p><br>
<p>Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing. Between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acre to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, and Kalapana and Kaimū in 1990. In 1987 lava filled in "Queen&#39;s Bath", a large, L-shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area.</p><br>
<p>Ka Lae, the southernmost point in the 50 States of the United States, is on Hawaii. The nearest landfall to the south is in the Line Islands. To the northwest of the island of Hawaii is the island of Maui, whose Haleakalā volcano is visible from Hawaii across the Alenuihaha Channel.</p><br>
<p>Approximately 35 km southeast of Hawaii lies the undersea volcano known as Lōʻihi. It is an erupting seamount that now reaches approximately 3,200 ft below the surface of the ocean. Continued activity at current rates from Lōʻihi will likely cause it to break the surface of the ocean sometime between 10,000 and 100,000 years from now.</p><br>
<h3>Great Crack</h3><br>
<p>See also Koa&#39;e Fault Zone.</p><br>
<p>The Great Crack is an 8 mi, 60 ft and 60 ft fissure in the island, in the district of Kau. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Great Crack is the result of crustal dilation from magmatic intrusions into the southwest rift zone of Kilauea. While neither the earthquake of 1868 nor that of 1975 caused a measurable change in the Great Crack, lava welled out of the lower 10 km of the Great Crack in 1823.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can find trails, rock walls, and archaeological sites from as old as the 12th century around the Great Crack. Approximately 1,951 acre of private land were purchased during the presidency of Bill Clinton, specifically to protect various artifacts in this area, as well as the habitat of local wildlife.</p><br>
<h3>Hilina Slump</h3><br>
<p>The Hilina Slump is a 4,760 cumi chunk of the south slope of the Kīlauea volcano which is slipping away from the island. Between 1990 and 1993, Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements showed a southward displacement of about 10 cm per year. Undersea measurements show that a "bench" has formed a buttress and that this buttress may tend to reduce the likelihood of future catastrophic detachment.</p><br>
<h3>Earthquakes and tsunamis</h3><br>
<p>On April 2, 1868, an earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.9 on the Richter scale rocked the southeast coast of Hawaii. This was the most destructive earthquake in the recorded history of Hawaii. It triggered a landslide on Mauna Loa, 5 mi north of Pahala, killing 31 people. A tsunami claimed 46 more lives. The villages of Punalu&#39;u, Nīnole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. The tsunami reportedly rolled over the tops of the coconut trees up to 60 ft high, and it reached inland a distance of a quarter of a mile (400 meters) in some places.</p><br>
<p>On 29 November 1975, a 37 mi section of the Hilina Slump dropped 11.5 ft and slid 26 ft toward the ocean. This movement caused a 7.2 magnitude earthquake and a 48 ft tsunami. Oceanfront property was washed off its foundations in Punaluu. Two deaths were reported at Halape, and 19 other people were injured.</p><br>
<p>The island suffered tsunami damage from earthquakes in Alaska on 1 April 1946, and in Chile on 23 May 1960. Downtown Hilo was severely damaged by both tsunamis, with many lives lost. Just north of Hilo, Laupāhoehoe lost 16 schoolchildren and five teachers in the tsunami of 1946.</p><br>
<p>In March 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake off the east coast of Japan again created a tsunami that caused minor damage in Hawaii. The estimated damage to public buildings alone was about US$3 million. In the Kona area this tsunami washed a house into Kealakekua Bay, destroyed a yacht club and tour boat offices in Keauhou Bay, caused extensive damage in Kailua Kona, flooded the ground floor of the King Kamehameha Hotel, and permanently closed the Kona Village Resort.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic fog</h3><br>
<p>Vog (volcanic fog) can envelop the island. The gas plumes of the Kīlauea Volcano create a blanket of vog which the dominant trade winds mostly deflect toward the Kona coast on the west side of the island of Hawaiʻi. Vog contains chemicals that can damage the environment and the health of plants, humans, and other animals. Most of the aerosols are acidic and of a size where they can remain in the lungs to damage them and impair function. Flu-like symptoms and general lethargy are reported, especially pronounced in people with respiratory conditions.</p><br>
<h3>National protected areas</h3><br>
<p>Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail</p><br>
<p>Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park</p><br>
<p>Honokōhau Settlement and Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park</p><br>
<p>Kohala Historical Sites State Monument (Mookini Heiau)</p><br>
<p>Kona Forest National Wildlife Refuge</p><br>
<p>Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park</p><br>
<p>Puʻukoholā Heiau National Historic Site</p><br>
<h3>Adjacent counties</h3><br>
<p>Maui County – northwest</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2010, the island had a resident population of 185,079. There were 64,382 households in the county. The population density was 17.7/km (45.9/mi). There were 82,324 housing units at an average density of 8/km (20/mi). The racial makeup of the county was 34.5% White, 0.7% African American, 22.6% Asian, 12.4% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 29.2% from two or more races; 11.8% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.</p><br>
<p>There were 64,382 households out of which 32.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.60% were married couples living together, 13.20% had a woman whose husband did not live with her, and 30.40% were non-families. 23.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.24.</p><br>
<p>The age distribution was 26.10% under 18, 8.20% from 18 to 24, 26.20% from 25 to 44, 26.00% from 45 to 64, and 13.50% who were 65 or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 100 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98 males.</p><br>
<p>41.31% of the people on Hawai`i island are religious, meaning they affiliate with a religion. 18.38% are Catholic; 3.70% are another Christian faith; 5.14% are LDS; 0.06% in Hawaii, Hawaii are Jewish; 5.04% are an eastern faith; 0.05% are Muslim.</p><br>
<h2>Government and infrastructure</h2><br>
<h3>County government</h3><br>
<p>Hawaii County encompasses the entire island of Hawaii. Executive authority is vested in the mayor of Hawaii County, who is elected for a four-year term. Since 2004, the election by the voters has been on a non-partisan basis. In 2008, Billy Kenoi was elected mayor, succeeding Harry Kim who had served a two-term limit. Legislative authority is vested in a nine-member county council. Each member represents a geographical region of the island, which closely correlates to one of the nine tax map districts of Hawaiʻi County. Members of the county council are elected on a non-partisan basis to two-year terms, with elections occurring in November of even-numbered years.</p><br>
<p>Administrative districts were originally based on the traditional land divisions called Moku of ancient Hawaii. Some of the more heavily populated districts have since been split into North and South districts to make them more comparable on a population basis.</p><br>
<p>The number following each district is the Tax Map Key (TMK) number, used to locate state property information. They are assigned in a counter-clockwise order, beginning on the eastern side of the island.</p><br>
<p>County council districts do not directly match the property tax districts because of the variation in the population density of voters in urban areas to rural areas; Hilo and Kailua (Kailua-Kona) towns are densely populated areas, while other districts such as Kaʻū, Puna, Hāmakua, and North & South Kohala are more sparsely populated.</p><br>
<p>Several government functions are administered at the county level that are at the state or municipal level in other states. For example, the county has its own office of liquor control.</p><br>
<h3>State government</h3><br>
<p>The Hawaii Department of Public Safety previously operated the Kulani Correctional Facility on the island of Hawaii. In 2009, the Hawaii Department of Public Safety announced that the facility would close.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Sugarcane was the backbone of the island of Hawaiʻi&#39;s economy for more than a century. In the mid-20th century, sugarcane plantations began to downsize, and in 1996 the last plantation closed.</p><br>
<p>Most of the island&#39;s economy is based on tourism, centered primarily in resort areas on the western coast of the island in the North Kona and South Kohala districts. More recently, Hawaiʻi Island has become a focus for sustainable tourism.</p><br>
<p>Diversified agriculture is a growing sector of the economy. Major crops include macadamia nuts, papaya, flowers, tropical and temperate vegetables, and coffee beans. Only coffee grown in the Kona District of this island may be branded Kona coffee. The islands orchid agriculture is the largest in the state, and resulted in the unofficial nickname "The Orchid Isle". The island is home to one of the United States largest cattle ranches: Parker Ranch, on 175,000 acre in Waimea. The island is also known for astronomy, with numerous telescopes operated on the summit of Mauna Kea, where atmospheric clarity is excellent and there is little light pollution.</p><br>
<p>NELHA (Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority), a 675 acre state developed site, is a green economic development ocean science and technology park on the west side of the island. It provides resources and facilities for energy and ocean-related research, education, and commercial activities in an environmentally sound and culturally sensitive manner. Business tenants on this coastal site include microalgae farms, aquaculture, solar technology and marine biotech. Tenants have access to three sets of pipelines delivering deep-sea water from a depth of up to 3,000 ft, as well as pristine sea surface water and almost constant sunshine. A 2012 study by the University of Hawaii Economic Research Organization (UHERO) found the total economic impact of activities at NELHA was $87.7 million and created 583 jobs.</p><br>
<h3>Top employers</h3><br>
<p>According to the county&#39;s 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the county are:</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo</p><br>
<p>University of the Nations</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi Community College</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Roads</h3><br>
<p>Three routes connect the two major towns, Hilo on the east coast and Kailua-Kona on the west coast of the island:</p><br>
<p>State highways 19 & 190, the northern route via Waimea</p><br>
<p>State highway 11, the southern route via Hawaii Volcanoes National Park</p><br>
<p>Saddle Road (aka the Daniel K. Inouye Memorial highway), passing between Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea).</p><br>
<p>There are also State highways 270 (Kawaihae – Hawi) and 180 (the "Kona coffee road", from Honalo to State highway 190), South Point Road (Highway 11 to South Point), etc.</p><br>
<p>There are presently three Hawaii Scenic Byways on the island of Hawaii:</p><br>
<p>Mamalahoa Kona Heritage Center</p><br>
<p>Royal Footsteps Along the Kona Coast</p><br>
<p>Ka&#39;u Scenic Byway – The Slopes of Mauna Loa</p><br>
<p>Rental car offices are at the international airports. Taxi service is also available. Island-wide bus service is provided by the "Hele-On Bus".</p><br>
<h3>Airports</h3><br>
<p>Two commercial airports serve Hawaiʻi Island:</p><br>
<p>Hilo International Airport (ITO)</p><br>
<p>Kona International Airport (KOA)</p><br>
<p>There is also:</p><br>
<p>Waimea-Kohala Airport (MUE)</p><br>
<p>Upolu Airport (UPP)</p><br>
<h3>Seaports</h3><br>
<p>Major commercial ports are Hilo on the east side and Kawaihae on the west side of the island. Cruise ships often stop at Kailua-Kona (90 times in 2017) and Hilo (108 times in 2017).</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Akaka Falls, one of the tallest waterfalls on the island.</p><br>
<p>Amy B. H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden houses many endangered endemic plants.</p><br>
<p>East Hawaiʻi Cultural Center</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi Tropical Botanical Garden</p><br>
<p>Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, comprising the active volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa</p><br>
<p>Huliheʻe Palace, a royal palace in Kailua-Kona</p><br>
<p>ʻImiloa Astronomy Center of Hawaiʻi in Hilo</p><br>
<p>Ka Lae, the southernmost point in the United States</p><br>
<p>Laupāhoehoe Train Museum</p><br>
<p>Lyman House Memorial Museum in Hilo</p><br>
<p>Manuka State Wayside Park</p><br>
<p>Mauna Kea Observatories</p><br>
<p>Nani Mau Gardens</p><br>
<p>Onizuka Center for International Astronomy</p><br>
<p>Pacific Tsunami Museum overlooking Hilo Bay</p><br>
<p>Pana&#39;ewa Rainforest Zoo in Hilo</p><br>
<p>Pua Mau Place Arboretum and Botanical Garden</p><br>
<p>Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park</p><br>
<p>Puʻukoholā Heiau National Historic Site, the site of one of the most significant heiau in Hawaii</p><br>
<p>Rainbow Falls State Park</p><br>
<p>Sadie Seymour Botanical Gardens</p><br>
<p>Umauma Falls</p><br>
<p>University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo Botanical Gardens</p><br>
<p>Waipiʻo Valley</p><br>
<p>Wao Kele o Puna</p><br>
<p>World Botanical Gardens</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<h2>Communities</h2><br>
<p>The island was traditionally divided into districts called moku. The names of the districts are (counter-clockwise, from the southeast): Puna, Hilo, Hāmākua, Kohala, Kona, and Kaʻū. The county government subdivides some of these to form elective districts of the county council. There are no incorporated municipalities on the island.</p><br>
<h3>Census-designated places</h3><br>
<p>Ainaloa</p><br>
<p>Captain Cook</p><br>
<p>Eden Roc</p><br>
<p>Fern Acres</p><br>
<p>Fern Forest</p><br>
<p>Halaula</p><br>
<p>Hawaiian Acres</p><br>
<p>Hawaiian Beaches</p><br>
<p>Hawaiian Ocean View</p><br>
<p>Hawaiian Paradise Park</p><br>
<p>Hawi</p><br>
<p>Hilo</p><br>
<p>Holualoa</p><br>
<p>Honalo</p><br>
<p>Honaunau-Napoopoo</p><br>
<p>Honokaa</p><br>
<p>Honomu</p><br>
<p>Kahaluu-Keauhou</p><br>
<p>Kailua</p><br>
<p>Kalaoa</p><br>
<p>Kapaau</p><br>
<p>Keaau</p><br>
<p>Kealakekua</p><br>
<p>Keokea</p><br>
<p>Kukuihaele</p><br>
<p>Kurtistown</p><br>
<p>Laupahoehoe</p><br>
<p>Leilani Estates</p><br>
<p>Mountain View</p><br>
<p>Naalehu</p><br>
<p>Nanawale Estates</p><br>
<p>Orchidlands Estates</p><br>
<p>Paauilo</p><br>
<p>Pahala</p><br>
<p>Pahoa</p><br>
<p>Papaikou</p><br>
<p>Pepeekeo</p><br>
<p>Paukaa</p><br>
<p>Puako</p><br>
<p>Volcano</p><br>
<p>Waikoloa Village</p><br>
<p>Waimea</p><br>
<p>Wainaku</p><br>
<h3>Unincorporated communities</h3><br>
<p>Ahualoa</p><br>
<p>Hakalau</p><br>
<p>Waiohinu</p><br>
<p>Hydra  is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece, located in the Aegean Sea between the Saronic Gulf and the Argolic Gulf. It is separated from the Peloponnese by a narrow strip of water. In ancient times, the island was known as Hydrea , a reference to the natural springs on the island.</p><br>
<p>The municipality of Hydra consists of the islands Hydra (pop. 1948, area 49.6 km&sup2;), Dokos (pop. 18, area 13.5 km&sup2;), and a few uninhabited islets, total area 64.443 km&sup2;. The province of Hydra (Επαρχία Ύδρας) was one of the provinces of the Piraeus Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipality. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<p>There is one main town, known simply as "Hydra port" (pop. 1,900 in 2011). It consists of a crescent-shaped harbor, around which is centered a strand of restaurants, shops, markets, and galleries that cater to tourists and locals (Hydriots). Steep stone streets lead up and outward from the harbor area. Most of the local residences, as well as the hostelries on the island, are located on these streets. Other small villages or hamlets on the island include Mandraki (pop. 11), Kamini, Vlychos (19), Palamidas, Episkopi, and Molos.</p><br>
<h2>Transport, tourism and leisure</h2><br>
<p>Hydra depends on tourism, and Athenians account for a sizable segment of its visitors. High-speed hydrofoils and catamarans from Piraeus, some 37 nmi away, serve Hydra, stopping first at Poros before going on to Spetses. There is a passenger ferry service providing an alternative to Hydrofoils that runs from Hydra Harbor to Metochi on the Peloponnese coast. Many Athenians drive to Metochi, leave their car in the secure car park, and take the 20-minute passenger ferry across to Hydra.</p><br>
<p>Rubbish trucks are the only motor vehicles on the island, since by law, cars and motorcycles are not allowed. Horses, mules and donkeys, and water taxis provide public transportation. The inhabited area, however, is so compact that most people walk everywhere.</p><br>
<p>Hydra benefits from numerous bays and natural harbors, and has a strong maritime culture. The island is a popular yachting destination and is the home of the Kamini Yacht Club, an international yacht club based in the port of Kamini.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, a National Geographic Traveler panel of 522 experts rated Hydra the highest of any Greek island (11th out of 111 islands worldwide) as a unique destination preserving its "integrity of place".</p><br>
<h3>Captains' mansions</h3><br>
<p>The Tsamadou mansion on the left-hand side of the harbor as one enters is now a Maritime Academy.</p><br>
<p>The Tombazi mansion is now part of the School of Fine Arts.</p><br>
<p>The mansions of Lazarus and George Kountouriotis, Boudouri, Kriezi, Voulgari, Sahini, and Miaouli all contain collections of 18th-century island furniture. The descendants of Lazarus Kountouriotis donated his mansion to the Historic-Ethnologic Institute of Greece. Today, it operates as an extension branch of the National Museum of History.</p><br>
<h3>Monasteries and the Cathedral</h3><br>
<p>There are numerous churches and six Orthodox monasteries on the island. Two particularly noteworthy monasteries are Profitis Ilias, founded in the 10th century, and Ayia Efpraxia. Both are on a hill overlooking the main harbor.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s cathedral is the old Monastery of the Dormition of the Virgin and sits on the quayside in the town. The monastery contains the tomb of Lazarus Kountouriotis, the richest sea captain on Hydra, who gave his entire fortune to support the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-history, antiquity, Byzantine and Venetian era</h3><br>
<p>There is evidence of farmers and herders from the second half of the third millennium BCE on the small, flat areas that are not visible from the sea. Obsidian from Milos has also been found. During the Helladic period, Hydra probably served as a maritime base for the kingdoms on the Greek peninsula. Fragments of vases, tools, and the head of an idol have been found on Mount Chorissa.</p><br>
<p>The large-scale Dorian invasion of Greece around the 12th century BCE appears to have depopulated the island. Hydra was repopulated by farmers and herders, perhaps sailing from the mainland port of Ermioni, in the 8th century BCE. Herodotus reports that toward the 6th century BCE, the island belonged to Ermioni, which sold it to Samos. Samos, in turn, ceded it to Troizina.</p><br>
<p>For much of its existence, Hydra stayed on the margins of history. The population was very small in ancient times and, except for the brief mentions in Herodotus and Pausanias, left little or no record in the history of those times.</p><br>
<p>It is clear that Hydra was populated during the Byzantine Era, as vases and coins have been discovered in the area of Episkopi. However, it appears that the island again lost its population during the Latin Empire of Constantinople as its inhabitants fled the pirate depredations. On other islands, inhabitants moved inland, something that was essentially impossible on Hydra.</p><br>
<p>From 1204 to 1566, it belonged to Venice. From 1566 to 1821 (nominally 1829), it was part of the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<p>In the 16th century, the island began to be settled by refugees from the warfare between the Ottomans and Venetians. The Arvanites presence was evident until the mid-20th century, when, according to T. Jochalas, the majority of the islands population was composed of Arvanites.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman era: period of commercial and naval strength</h3><br>
<p>Hydra was relatively unimportant during much of the period of Ottoman rule. Its naval and commercial development began in the 17th century, and its first school for mariners was established in 1645. Apparently, the first truly Hydriot vessel was launched in 1657. However, the conflict between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire limited the island&#39;s maritime development until after 1718 and the Treaty of Passarowitz. From the 17th century on, Hydra began to take on a greater importance because of its trading strength.</p><br>
<p>During the first half of the 18th century, Hydra built the same kind of vessels as were built in the other Aegean Islands: the sachtouri of 15 to 20 tons, and the latinadiko of 40 to 50 tons. The Hydriots contented themselves with trading in the Aegean, going as far as Constantinople. A great change occurred in 1757 after they launched a vessel of 250 tons. The larger boats enabled Hydra to become an important commercial port. By 1771, there were up to 50 vessels from throughout Greece in the roads. Ten years later, the island had fitted out 100 vessels.</p><br>
<p>However, the Ottoman Empire and its policies constrained Hydras economic success. Heavy tariffs and taxes limited the speed of development. The Ottoman administration limited free trade, permitting only Ottoman vessels to navigate the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, and hence to have access to the Black Sea, its ports, and the trade in grain from their hinterlands. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca changed all this. Russia gained from the Ottoman Empire the right to protect the Empires Orthodox Christians. The religious protection had a commercial corollary: the Hydriots began to sail under the Russian flag. The treaty also provided for free passage between the Aegean and the Black Sea. Hydra entered its commercial era. Hydriot vessels carried goods between Southern Russia in the east and the Italian ports of Ancona and Livorno in the west. From 1785 on, the Hydriot shippers began to engage in commerce, not just transport. Each vessel became its own small commercial enterprise, and trade with the Levant quickly began to depend on Hydra&#39;s vessels, though not without competition from those of Spetses and Psara.</p><br>
<p>The plague of 1792 killed a large part of the population, and many people moved away. As a result, the town was almost completely abandoned for a while. By the end of the 18th century, Hydra had again become quite prosperous, with its vessels trading as far as France, Spain, and even the Americas. Napoleon presented the island with the huge silver chandelier in the cathedral as a gesture of gratitude for the Hydriots&#39; role in running the British blockade and so bringing food to France.</p><br>
<h3>The Greek War of Independence and later decline</h3><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Hydra was home to some 125 boats and 10,000 sailors. The mansions of the sea captains that ring the harbor are a testament to the prosperity that shipping brought to the island, which, at the time of the Greek Revolution, had 16,000 inhabitants. During the revolution, the fleets of Hydra and the other two naval islands of Psara and Spetses were able to wrest control of the eastern Aegean Sea from the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<p>When the Greek War of Independence broke out, Hydra&#39;s contribution of some 150 ships, plus supplies, to fight against the Turks played a critical role. The Greek admiral Andreas Miaoulis, himself a settler on Hydra, used Hydriot fire ships to inflict heavy losses on the Ottoman fleet.</p><br>
<p>With the end of the revolution and the creation of the Greek state, the island gradually lost its maritime position in the Eastern Mediterranean, igniting an economic crisis that led to a period of hardship and unemployment. The main reason was that with the creation of the Greek state, Hydras fleet lost the privileges that the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and the use of the Russian flag had given it. Another reason was that the traditional families who owned the majority of the fleet failed to foresee the benefits of participating in the steam ship revolution, which significantly cut shipping operational costs through reduced crew and independence of the winds, putting them at a disadvantage vis-á-vis the new shipping companies of Piraeus, Patras, and Syros. A third reason was that the new conditions made illegal activities such as piracy impossible. Once again, many inhabitants abandoned Hydra, leaving behind their large mansions and beautiful residences, which fell into ruin. The mainstay of the islands economy became fishing for sponge. This brought prosperity again until 1932, when Egypt forbade fishing along its coast. By World War II, the Hydriots were again leaving the island; many of them went abroad.</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>Between 1941 and 1943, during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II, there was famine on Hydra. It is estimated that some eight percent of the population died of starvation.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Topography and ecology</h2><br>
<p>The dominant geographic features of Hydra are its rocky hillsides, which are bare, pine forested valleys with the occasional farmhouse. The island was subject to a modern geologic study by Renz in 1955. Some of the later Permian limestone strata are rich in well-preserved fossils.</p><br>
<p>There are many types of wildflowers, including rare spentzes or cyclamen and poppies. As well as pine trees, there are cypress and olive trees. Birds species include partridges, quails, and many migratory birds, which are subject to local hunting. Mammals include rabbits, feral cats, and goats.</p><br>
<p>Although the island&#39;s name is derived from ancient springs known to the Ancient Greeks, it is now almost dry. Hydra previously had wells, and three new wells have been found. Today, the island imports its water by boat from the Greek mainland. A new desalinization plant has been finished but is not in operation. Many local people store winter rainfall in cisterns beneath their houses to use later as drinking water.</p><br>
<p>A savage fire during the intense heat of 2007 destroyed much of the pine forest to the east of Hydra port. However, the fire left untouched some forest above Kamini and at the west end of Hydra. The forest around Molos, Bisti, and Agios Nikolaous was also unaffected.</p><br>
<p>The island has almost no nighttime light pollution. This is a boon to astronomy.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality of Hydra</h2><br>
<p>The municipality of Hydra includes the following islands:</p><br>
<p>The total area of the municipality is 72 km&sup2, and its population is 1980 (2011), most in Hydra (city).</p><br>
<h2>Cultural life</h2><br>
<p>The hosts performances, drama and dance workshops for the local community, and courses in ancient Greek theater for international participants.</p><br>
<p>The island hosts an annual conference on Rebetiko, a type of Greek urban folk music, in mid-October.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s and 1960s Hydra was the adopted home of a community of artists, expatriates from their own countries, that included celebrated Norwegian novelist Axel Jensen, and Canadian singer-songwriter Leonard Cohen. Cohen wrote several of his most well-known songs on Hydra, including Bird on the wire, and So Long, Marianne, while living with Jensen&#39;s ex-wife, Marianne Ihlen.</p><br>
<p>In June 2009, the art collector Dakis Joannou opened a Hydra branch of a private art museum, the Deste Foundation, to show the work of established young artists.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns—Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>The municipality of Hydra is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Ereğli, Turkey (since 1996)</p><br>
<p>Bayonne, France (since 2008)</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Andreas Miaoulis (1768–1835) merchant, Shipowner, Naval hero, admiral</p><br>
<p>Laskarina Bouboulina (1771–1825) Merchant, Shipowner, Naval heroine, admiral</p><br>
<p>Iakovos Tombazis (1782–1829) merchant, shipowner, Naval hero, admiral</p><br>
<p>Emmanuel Tombazis merchant, shipowner, Naval hero, admiral</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kountouriotis (1789–1858) merchant, shipowner, politician, Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Lazaros Kountouriotis) merchant, shipowner, The biggest funder of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<p>Georgios Sahinis (1789–1864) merchant, shipowner, Naval hero, admiral</p><br>
<p>Stavros Sahinis died in the Battle of Sphacteria (1825), holding off the Egyptian-Turkish landing force.</p><br>
<p>Antonios Kriezis (1796–1865) merchant, shipowner, Naval hero, admiral, Prime Ministers</p><br>
<p>Anastassios Tsamados, merchant, shipowner, Naval hero, Captain of the Aris, died in the Battle of Sphacteria (1825), holding off the Egyptian-Turkish landing force.</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Voulgaris (1802–1878) merchant, shipowner, Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Athanasios Miaoulis (1815–1867) Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Vokos (1854–1902) painter</p><br>
<p>Pavlos Kountouriotis (1855–1935) naval hero, admiral and President of Greece</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Votsis (1877–1931) naval hero and admiral</p><br>
<p>Dorotheus (1888–1957) Archbishop of Athens and All Greece</p><br>
<p>Nikos Nikolaou (1909–1986) artist</p><br>
<p>Gikas N. Koulouras Shipowner, member of Parliament, founded and donated the Historical Museum and Archives of Hydra, founder and first President of the Greek Shipowners Association</p><br>
<p>Panayiotis Tetsis (1925) painter</p><br>
<p>Michalis Maniatis (1952) film and TV actor, producer, screen and book writer</p><br>
<p>Rallou Manou, choreographer</p><br>
<p>Elena Votsi (b. 1964), jewellery designer</p><br>
<p>Leonard Cohen (1934–2016) Canadian poet and songwriter</p><br>
<p>Axel Jensen (1932–2003) Norwegian author</p><br>
<p>George Johnston (1912–1970) Australian journalist, novelist and writer</p><br>
<p>Charmian Clift (1923–1969) Australian novelist and writer</p><br>
<p>Göran Tunström (1937–2000) Swedish author</p><br>
<p>Marios Loizides (1928–1988) was a Greek visual artist.</p><br>
<h2>Books about or set on Hydra</h2><br>
<p>The Colossus of Maroussi, Henry Miller (1941)</p><br>
<p>Peel Me a Lotus, Charmian Clift (1959)</p><br>
<p>A Rope of Vines: Journal from a Greek Island, Brenda Chamberlain (1965)</p><br>
<p>Rien ne va plus (The Sleepwalker), Margarita Karapanou (1994)</p><br>
<p>Clouds over Hydra, Charles Young (1996)</p><br>
<p>Fugitive Pieces, Anne Michaels (1996)</p><br>
<p>The Riders, Tim Winton (1996)</p><br>
<p>Hydra and the Bananas of Leonard Cohen, Roger Green (2003)</p><br>
<p>Rhubarbs from a Rock, David Fagan (2003)</p><br>
<p>Lighthousekeeping, Jeannette Winterson (2006)</p><br>
<p>Hydra, Catherine Vanderpool (1980)</p><br>
<p>Le Premier jour, Marc Levy (2009)</p><br>
<p>Travels with Epicurus, Daniel Klein (2012)</p><br>
<p>Hydra vues privées / Private views, Catherine Panchout, Éditions Gourcuff Gradenigo (2015)</p><br>
<p>Island of Cats – Hydra, Gabriela Staebler, Edition Reuss (2015)</p><br>
<p>The Sea Change, Elizabeth Jane Howard 1959</p><br>
<p>Beautiful Animals, Lawrence Osborne 2017</p><br>
<h2>Movies filmed on Hydra</h2><br>
<p>A Girl in Black (Greece 1956)</p><br>
<p>Boy on a Dolphin (1957). Hydra was the setting for this Sophia Loren hit movie.</p><br>
<p>Phaedra (1962)</p><br>
<p>Island of Love (1963)</p><br>
<p>Incense for the Damned (1970)</p><br>
<p>Out of the Shadows (1988)</p><br>
<p>The Blue Villa (Un Bruit Qui Rend Fou) (1995)</p><br>
<p>Boat Trip (2002)</p><br>
<p>Fugitive Pieces (2007)</p><br>
<p>The Capsule (2012)</p><br>
<p>Miletus ; Miletus; Milet) was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria.Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective By Luc-Normand Tellier page79</p><br>
<p>“The neighboring Greek city of Miletus, located on the Menander river was another terminal of the same route; it exerted certain hegemony over the Black sea trade and created about fifty commercial entrepôts in the Aegean sea and Black sea region...” Its ruins are located near the modern village of Balat in Aydın Province, Turkey. Before the Persian invasion in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered the greatest and wealthiest of Greek cities.A Short History of Greek Philosophy By John Marshall page 11</p><br>
<p>“For several centuries prior to the great Persian inversion of Greece, perhaps the very greatest and wealthiest city of the Greek world was Miletus”Ancient Greek civilization By David Sansone page 79</p><br>
<p>“In the seventh and sixth centuries BC the city of Miletus was among the most prosperous and powerful of Greek poleis.” In other sources however it is mentioned that the city was much more modest up until the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), when, for example, the city state of Samos on the island of Samos opposite Miletus was considered a larger and more important city and harbor. Miletus&#39; greatest wealth and splendor was reached during the Hellenistic era (323–30 BC) and later Roman times.</p><br>
<p>Evidence of first settlement at the site has been made inaccessible by the rise of sea level and deposition of sediments from the Maeander. The first available evidence is of the Neolithic.</p><br>
<p>In the early and middle Bronze age the settlement came under Minoan influence. Legend has it that an influx of Cretans occurred displacing the indigenous Leleges. The site was renamed Miletus after a place in Crete.</p><br>
<p>The Late Bronze Age, 13th century BC, saw the arrival of Luwian language speakers from south central Anatolia calling themselves the Carians. Later in that century other Greeks arrived. The city at that time rebelled against the Hittite Empire. After the fall of that empire the city was destroyed in the 12th century BC and starting about 1000 BC was resettled extensively by the Ionian Greeks. Legend offers an Ionian foundation event sponsored by a founder named Neleus from the Peloponnesus.</p><br>
<p>The Greek Dark Ages were a time of Ionian settlement and consolidation in an alliance called the Ionian League. The Archaic Period of Greece began with a sudden and brilliant flash of art and philosophy on the coast of Anatolia. In the 6th century BC, Miletus was the site of origin of the Greek philosophical (and scientific) tradition, when Thales, followed by Anaximander and Anaximenes (known collectively, to modern scholars, as the Milesian School) began to speculate about the material constitution of the world, and to propose speculative naturalistic (as opposed to traditional, supernatural) explanations for various natural phenomena.</p><br>
<p>Miletus is the birthplace of the Hagia Sophia&#39;s architect (and inventor of the flying buttress) Isidore of Miletus and Thales, a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher (and one of the Seven Sages of Greece) in c. 624 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The ruins appear on satellite maps at 37°31.8N 27°16.7E, about 3 km north of Balat and 3 km east of Batıköy in Aydın Province, Turkey.</p><br>
<p>In antiquity the city possessed a harbour at the southern entry of a large bay, on which two more of the traditional twelve Ionian cities stood: Priene and Myus. The harbour of Miletus was additionally protected by the nearby small island of Lade. Over the centuries the gulf silted up with alluvium carried by the Meander River. Priene and Myus had lost their harbours by the Roman era, and Miletus itself became an inland town in the early Christian era; all three were abandoned to ruin as their economies were strangled by the lack of access to the sea. There is a Great Harbour Monument where, according to the New Testament account, the apostle Paul stopped on his way back to Jerusalem by boat. He met the Ephesian Elders and then headed out to the beach to bid them farewell, recorded in the book of.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>During the Pleistocene epoch the Miletus region was submerged in the Aegean Sea. It subsequently emerged slowly, the sea reaching a low level of about 130 m below present level at about 18,000 BP. The site of Miletus was part of the mainland.</p><br>
<p>A gradual rise brought a level of about 1.75 m below present at about 5500 BP, creating several karst block islands of limestone, the location of the first settlements at Miletus. At about 1500 BC the karst shifted due to small crustal movements and the islands consolidated into a peninsula. Since then the sea has risen 1.75 m but the peninsula has been surrounded by sediment from the Maeander river and is now land-locked. Sedimentation of the harbor began at about 1000 BC, and by AD 300 Lake Bafa had been created.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Neolithic</h3><br>
<p>The earliest available archaeological evidence indicates that the islands on which Miletus was originally placed were inhabited by a Neolithic population in 3500–3000 BC. Pollen in core samples from Lake Bafa in the Latmus region inland of Miletus suggests that a lightly grazed climax forest prevailed in the Maeander valley, otherwise untenanted. Sparse Neolithic settlements were made at springs, numerous and sometimes geothermal in this karst, rift valley topography. The islands offshore were settled perhaps for their strategic significance at the mouth of the Maeander, a route inland protected by escarpments. The graziers in the valley may have belonged to them, but the location looked to the sea.</p><br>
<h3>Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Recorded history at Miletus begins with the records of the Hittite Empire and the Mycenaean records of Pylos and Knossos, in the Late Bronze Age. The prehistoric archaeology of the Early and Middle Bronze Age portrays a city heavily influenced by society and events elsewhere in the Aegean, rather than inland.</p><br>
<h4>Minoan period</h4><br>
<p>Beginning at about 1900 BC artifacts of the Minoan civilization acquired by trade arrived at Miletus. For some centuries the location received a strong impulse from that civilization, an archaeological fact that tends to support but not necessarily confirm the founding legend—that is, a population influx, from Crete. According to Strabo:Ephorus says: Miletus was first founded and fortified above the sea by Cretans, where the Miletus of olden times is now situated, being settled by Sarpedon, who brought colonists from the Cretan Miletus and named the city after that Miletus, the place formerly being in possession of the Leleges.The legends recounted as history by the ancient historians and geographers are perhaps the strongest; the late mythographers have nothing historically significant to relate.</p><br>
<h4>Mycenaean period</h4><br>
<p>Miletus was a Mycenaean stronghold on the coast of Asia Minor from c. 1450 to 1100 BC. In c. 1320 BC, the city supported an anti-Hittite rebellion of Uhha-Ziti of nearby Arzawa. Mursili ordered his generals Mala-Ziti and Gulla to raid Millawanda, and they proceeded to burn parts of it; damage from LHIIIA found on-site has been associated with this raid. In addition the town was fortified according to a Hittite plan.</p><br>
<p>Miletus is then mentioned in the "Tawagalawa letter", part of a series including the Manapa-Tarhunta letter and the Milawata letter, all of which are less securely dated. The Tawagalawa letter notes that Milawata had a governor, Atpa, who was under the jurisdiction of Ahhiyawa (a growing state probably in LHIIIB Mycenaean Greece); and that the town of Atriya was under Milesian jurisdiction. The Manapa-Tarhunta letter also mentions Atpa. Together the two letters tell that the adventurer Piyama-Radu had humiliated Manapa-Tarhunta before Atpa (in addition to other misadventures); a Hittite king then chased Piyama-Radu into Millawanda and, in the Tawagalawa letter, requested Piyama-Radu&#39;s extradition to Hatti.</p><br>
<p>The Milawata letter mentions a joint expedition by the Hittite king and a Luwiyan vassal (probably Kupanta-Kurunta of Mira) against Miletus, and notes that the city (together with Atriya) were now under Hittite control.</p><br>
<p>Homer mentions that during the time of the Trojan War, Miletus was an ally of Troy and was city of the Carians, under Naster and Amphimachus.</p><br>
<p>In the last stage of LHIIIB, the citadel of bronze age Pylos counted among its female slaves a mi-ra-ti-ja, Mycenaean Greek for "women from Miletus", written in Linear B syllabic script. During the collapse of Bronze Age civilization, Miletus was burnt again, presumably by the Sea Peoples.</p><br>
<h3>Dark Age</h3><br>
<p>Mythographers told that Neleus, a son of Codrus the last King of Athens, had come to Miletus after the "Return of the Heraclids" (so, during the Greek Dark Ages). The Ionians killed the men of Miletus and married their widows. This is the mythical commencement of the enduring alliance between Athens and Miletus, which played an important role in the subsequent Persian Wars.</p><br>
<h3>Archaic period</h3><br>
<p>The city of Miletus became one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor.</p><br>
<p>Miletus was one of the cities involved in the Lelantine War of the 8th century BC.</p><br>
<h4>Ties with Megara</h4><br>
<p>Miletus is known to have early ties with Megara in Greece. According to some scholars, these two cities had built up a “colonisation alliance”. In the 7th/6th century BCE they acted in accordance with each other.</p><br>
<p>Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle. Megara cooperated with that of Delphi. Miletus had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma. Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.</p><br>
<p>According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the city citadel called Caria. This Car of Megara may or may not be one and the same as the Car of the Carians, also known as Car (King of Caria).</p><br>
<p>In the late 7th century BC, the tyrant Thrasybulus preserved the independence of Miletus during a 12-year war fought against the Lydian Empire. Thrasybulus was an ally of the famous Corinthian tyrant Periander.</p><br>
<p>Miletus was an important center of philosophy and science, producing such men as Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. Referring to this period, religious studies professor F. E. Peters described pan-deism as "the legacy of the Milesians."</p><br>
<p>By the 6th century BC, Miletus had earned a maritime empire with many colonies, but brushed up against powerful Lydia at home, and the tyrant Polycrates of its neighbor to the west, Samos.</p><br>
<h3>First Achaemenid period</h3><br>
<p>When Cyrus of Persia defeated Croesus of Lydia in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus fell under Persian rule. In 499 BC Miletus&#39;s tyrant Aristagoras became the leader of the Ionian Revolt against the Persians under Darius the Great, who quashed this rebellion and punished Miletus by selling all of the women and children into slavery, killing the men, and expelling all of the young men as eunuchs, thereby assuring that no Miletus citizen would ever be born again. A year afterward, Phrynicus produced the tragedy The Capture of Miletus in Athens. The Athenians fined him for reminding them of their loss.</p><br>
<h3>Classical Greek period</h3><br>
<p>In 479 BC the Greeks decisively defeated the Persians on the Greek mainland at the Battle of Plataea, and Miletus was freed of Persian rule. During this time several other cities were formed by Milesian settlers, spanning across what is now Turkey and even as far as Crimea. The city&#39;s gridlike layout became famous, serving as the basic layout for Roman cities.</p><br>
<h3>Second Achaemenid period</h3><br>
<p>In 387 BC the Peace of Antalcidas gave the Persian Achaemenid Empire under king Artaxerxes II control of the Greek city-states of Ionia, including Miletus.</p><br>
<p>In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes III, who in 355 BC forced Athens to conclude a peace which required its forces to leave Asia Minor (Anatolia) and acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.</p><br>
<h3>Macedonian period</h3><br>
<p>In 334 BC the Siege of Miletus by the forces of Alexander the Great of Macedonia liberated the city from Persian rule, soon followed by most of Asia Minor. In this period the city reached its greatest extent, occupying within its walls an area of approximately 90 hectare.</p><br>
<p>When Alexander died in 323 BC, Miletus came under the control of Ptolemy, governor of Caria and his satrap of Lydia Asandrus, who had become autonomous. In 312 BC Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus sent Docimus and Medeius to free the city and grant autonomy, restoring the democratic patrimonial regime. After Antigonus I was killed in the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC by the coalition of Lysimachus of Macedon, Cassander of Macedon, and Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire, Miletus maintained good relations with all the successors after Seleucus I Nicator made substantial donations to the sanctuary of Didyma and returned the statue of Apollo that had been stolen by the Persians in 494 BC.</p><br>
<p>In 295 BC Antigonus I&#39;s son Demetrius Poliorcetes was the eponymous archon (stephanephorus) in the city, which allied with Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt, while Lysimachus assumed power in the region, enforcing a strict policy towards the Greek cities by imposing high taxes, forcing Miletus to resort to lending</p><br>
<h3>Seleucid period</h3><br>
<p>Around 287/286 BC Demetrius Poliorcetes returned, but failed to maintain his possessions and was imprisoned in Syria. Nicocles of Sido, the commander of Demetrius&#39; fleet surrendered the city. Lysimachus dominated until 281 BC, when he was defeated by the Seleucids at the Battle of Corupedium. In 280/279 BC the Milesians adopted a new chronological system based on the Seleucids.</p><br>
<h3>Egyptian period</h3><br>
<p>In 279 BC the city was taken from Seleucid king Antiochus II by Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who donated a large area of land to cement their friendship, and it remained under Egyptian sway until the end of the century.</p><br>
<p>Aristides of Miletus, founder of the bawdy Miletian school of literature flourished in the 2nd century BC.</p><br>
<h3>Roman period</h3><br>
<p>The New Testament mentions Miletus as the site where the Apostle Paul in AD 57 met with the elders of the church of Ephesus near the close of his Third Missionary Journey, as recorded in Acts of the Apostles (Acts 20:15–38). It is believed that Paul stopped by the Great Harbour Monument and sat on its steps. He may have met the Ephesian elders there and then bid them farewell on the nearby beach. Miletus is also the city where Paul left Trophimus, one of his travelling companions, to recover from an illness (2 Timothy 4:20). Because this cannot be the same visit as Acts 20 (in which Trophimus accompanied Paul all the way to Jerusalem, according to Acts 21:29), Paul must have made at least one additional visit to Miletus, perhaps as late as AD 65 or 66. Pauls previous successful three-year ministry in nearby Ephesus resulted in the evangelization of the entire province of Asia (see Acts 19:10, 20; 1 Corinthians 16:9). It is safe to assume that at least by the time of the apostles second visit to Miletus, a fledgling Christian community was established in Miletus.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>During the Byzantine age the see of Miletus was raised to an archbishopric and later a metropolitan bishopric. The small Byzantine castle called Palation located on the hill beside the city, was built at this time. Miletus was headed by a curator.</p><br>
<h3>Turkish rule</h3><br>
<p>Seljuk Turks conquered the city in the 14th century and used Miletus as a port to trade with Venice.</p><br>
<p>Finally, Ottomans utilized the city as a harbour during their rule in Anatolia. As the harbour became silted up, the city was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Due to ancient and subsequent deforestation, overgrazing (mostly by goat herds), erosion and soil degradation the ruins of the city lie some 10 km from the sea with sediments filling the plain and bare hill ridges without soils and trees, a maquis shrubland remaining.</p><br>
<p>The Ilyas Bey Complex from 1403 with its mosque is an Europa Nostra awarded cultural heritage site in Miletus.</p><br>
<h3>Archaeological excavations</h3><br>
<p>The first excavations in Miletus were conducted by the French archaeologist Olivier Rayet in 1873, followed by the German archaeologists Julius Hülsen and Theodor Wiegand between 1899 and 1931.</p><br>
<p>Excavations, however, were interrupted several times by wars and various other events.</p><br>
<p>Carl Weickart excavated for a short season in 1938 and again between</p><br>
<p>1955 and 1957.Carl Weickert, Neue Ausgrabungen in Milet,</p><br>
<p>Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiet und im Vorderen Orient, pp. 181-96, 1959</p><br>
<p>He was followed by Gerhard Kleiner and then by Wolfgang Muller-Wiener.</p><br>
<p>Today, excavations are organized by the Ruhr University of Bochum, Germany.</p><br>
<p>One remarkable artifact recovered from the city during the first excavations of the 19th century, the Market Gate of Miletus, was transported piece by piece to Germany and reassembled. It is currently exhibited at the Pergamon museum in Berlin. The main collection of artifacts resides in the Miletus Museum in Didim, Aydın, serving since 1973.</p><br>
<h2>Colonies of Miletus</h2><br>
<p>Miletus became known for the great number of colonies it founded. It was considered the greatest Greek metropolis and founded more colonies than any other Greek city.Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece By A. J. Graham page 98</p><br>
<p>“Judged by the number of its colonies Miletus was the greatest of the Greek mother cities. For though some of the more extravagance claims made in antiquate have not been substantiated by modern investigations, her colonies were by far more numerous than those of any other Greek cities.”</p><br>
<p>Pliny the Elder mentions 90 colonies founded by Miletus in his Natural History (5.112), among them:</p><br>
<p>Amisos</p><br>
<p>Apolonia</p><br>
<p>Dioscurias</p><br>
<p>Histria</p><br>
<p>Odessos</p><br>
<p>Olbia</p><br>
<p>Panticapaeum</p><br>
<p>Phanagoria</p><br>
<p>Phasis</p><br>
<p>Pityus</p><br>
<p>Sinope</p><br>
<p>Tanais</p><br>
<p>Theodosia</p><br>
<p>Tomis</p><br>
<p>Tyras</p><br>
<p>Trapezunt</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Thales (c. 624 BC – c. 546 BC), Pre-Socratic philosopher</p><br>
<p>Anaximander (c. 610 BC – c. 546 BC), Pre-Socratic philosopher</p><br>
<p>Cadmus (fl. c. 550 BC), writer</p><br>
<p>Anaximenes (c. 585 BC – c. 525 BC), Pre-Socratic philosopher</p><br>
<p>Hippodamus (c. 498 — 408 BC), urban planner</p><br>
<p>Aspasia (c. 470 – 400 BC) courtesan, and mistress of Pericles, was born in Miletus</p><br>
<p>Aristides, writer</p><br>
<p>Hecataeus, historian</p><br>
<p>Hesychius (fl. 6th century), Greek chronicler and biographer</p><br>
<p>Isidore (fl. 4th–5th century), Greek architect</p><br>
<p>Aristagoras (fl. 5th–6th century), Tyrant of Miletus</p><br>
<p>Leucippus (fl. first half of 5th century BC), philosopher and originator of Atomism (his association with Miletus is traditional, but disputed)</p><br>
<p>Sylt  is an island in northern Germany, part of Nordfriesland district, Schleswig-Holstein, and well known for the distinctive shape of its shoreline. It belongs to the North Frisian Islands and is the largest island in North Frisia.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost island of Germany, it is known for its tourist resorts, notably Westerland, Kampen and Wenningstedt-Braderup, as well as for its 40 km sandy beach. It is frequently covered by the media in connection with its exposed situation in the North Sea and its ongoing loss of land during storm tides. Since 1927, Sylt has been connected to the mainland by the Hindenburgdamm causeway. In latter years, it has been a resort for the German jet set and tourists in search of occasional celebrity sighting.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>With 99.14 km², Sylt is the fourth-largest German island and the largest German island in the North Sea. Sylt is located from 9 to 16 km off the mainland, to which it is connected by the Hindenburgdamm. Southeast of Sylt are the islands of Föhr and Amrum, to the north lies the Danish island of Rømø. The island of Sylt extends for 38 km in a north-south direction. At its northern point at Königshafen, it is only 320 m wide. Its greatest width, from the town of Westerland in the west to the eastern Nössespitze near Morsum, measures 12.6 km. On the western and northwestern shore, there is a 40 km sandy beach. To the east of Sylt, is the Wadden Sea, which belongs to the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park and mostly falls dry during low tide.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s shape has constantly shifted over time, a process which is still ongoing today. The northern and southern spits of Sylt are exclusively made up of infertile sand deposits, while the central part with the municipalities of Westerland, Wenningstedt-Braderup and Sylt-Ost consists of a geestland core, which becomes apparent in the form of the Red Cliff of Wenningstedt. The geestland facing the Wadden Sea gradually turns into fertile marshland around Sylt-Ost. Sylt has only been an island since the Grote Mandrenke flood of 1362. The so-called Uwe-Düne (Uwe Dune) is the island&#39;s highest elevation with 52.5 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The island in its current form has only existed for about 400 years. Like the mainland geestland, it was formed of moraines from the older ice ages, thus being made up of a till core, which is now apparent in the island&#39;s west and centre by the cliff, dunes and beach. This sandy core began to erode as it was exposed to a strong current along the island&#39;s steep basement when the sea level rose 8000 years ago. During the process, sediments were accumulated north and south of the island. The west coast, which was originally situated 10 km off today&#39;s shore, was thus gradually moved eastward, while at the same time the island began to extend to the north and south. After the ice ages, marshland began to form around this geestland core.</p><br>
<p>In 1141, Sylt is recorded as an island, yet before the Grote Mandrenke flood it belonged to a landscape cut by tidal creeks and, at least during low tide, it could be reached on foot.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the constant loss of land, the inhabitants during the Little Ice Age were constrained by sand drift. Dunes shifting to the east threatened settlements and arable land and had to be stopped by the planting of marram grass in the 18th century. Consequently, though, material breaking off the island was increasingly washed away and the island&#39;s extent continued to decrease.</p><br>
<p>Records of the annual land loss exist since 1870. According to them, Sylt lost an annual 0.4 m of land in the north and 0.7 m in the south from 1870 to 1951. From 1951 to 1984, the rate increased to 0.9 m and 1.4 m respectively, while shorelines at the island&#39;s very edges at Hörnum and List are even more affected.</p><br>
<p>Severe storm surges of the last decades have repeatedly endangered Sylt to the point of breaking in two, e.g. Hörnum was temporarily cut off from the island in 1962. Part of the island near Rantum which is only 500m wide is especially threatened.</p><br>
<p>Measures of protection against the continuous erosion date back to the early 19th century when groynes of wooden poles were constructed. Those were built at right angles into the sea from the coast line. Later they were replaced by metal and eventually by armoured concrete groynes. The constructions did not have the desired effect of stopping the erosion caused by crossways currents. "Leeward erosion", i.e. erosion on the downwind side of the groynes prevented sustainable accumulation of sand.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s breaking the power of the sea was attempted by installing tetrapods along the groyne bases or by putting them into the sea like groynes. The four-armed structures, built in France and many tons in weight were too heavy for Sylt&#39;s beaches and were equally unable to prevent erosion. Therefore, they were removed from the Hörnum west beach in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Since the early 1970s the only effective means so far has been flushing sand onto the shore. Dredging vessels are used to pump a mixture of sand and water to a beach where it is spread by bulldozers. Thus storm floods would only erase the artificial accumulation of sand, while the shoreline proper remains intact and erosion is slowed down. This procedure incurs considerable costs. The required budget of an annual €10 million is currently provided by federal German, Schleswig-Holstein state and EU funds. Since 1972 an estimated 35.5 million cubic metres of sand have been flushed ashore and dumped on Sylt. The measures have so far cost more than €134 million in total, but according to scientific calculations they are sufficient to prevent further loss of land for at least three decades, so the benefits for the island&#39;s economic power and for the economically underdeveloped region in general would outweigh the costs. In the 1995 study Klimafolgen für Mensch und Küste am Beispiel der Nordseeinsel Sylt (Climate impact for Man and Shores as seen on the North Sea island Sylt) it reads: "Hätte Sylt nicht das Image einer attraktiven Ferieninsel, gäbe es den Küstenschutz in der bestehenden Form gewiss nicht" (If Sylt did not have the image of an attractive holiday island, coastal management in its current form would certainly not exist).</p><br>
<p>The enforcement of a natural reef off Sylt is being discussed as an alternative solution. A first experiment was conducted from 1996 to 2003. A sand drainage as being successfully used on Danish islands is not likely to work on Sylt owing to the underwater slope here.</p><br>
<p>In parallel to the ongoing sand flushing, the deliberate demolition of groynes has begun amid great effort at certain beach sections where they were proven largely ineffective. This measure also terminated the presumably most famous groyne of Sylt, Buhne 16 — the namesake of the local naturist beach.</p><br>
<p>A number of experts, however, fears that Sylt will still have to face considerable losses of land until the mid 21st century. The continuous global warming is thought to result in increasing storm activity, which would result in increased land loss and, as a first impact, might mean the end of property insurance. Measurements showed that, unlike in former times, the wave energy of the sea is no longer lost offshore, today it carries its destructive effects on to the beaches proper. This will result in an annual loss of sand of 1.1 million m³.</p><br>
<p>The dunes of the island constitute nature reserves and may only be traversed on marked tracks. So called "wild paths" promote erosion and are not to be followed. Where vegetation is tread upon, no roots are left to hold the sand and it will be removed by wind and water.</p><br>
<p>The Wadden Sea on the east side between Sylt and the mainland has been a nature reserve and bird sanctuary since 1935 and is part of the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park. The construction of breakwaters in this area will abate sedimentation and is used for land reclamation.</p><br>
<p>Also the grazing of sheep on the sea dikes and heaths of Sylt eventually serves coastal management, since the animals keep the vegetation short and compress the soil with their hooves. Thus they help create a denser dike surface, which in case of storm surges provides less area for the waves to impact.</p><br>
<h3>Flora and fauna</h3><br>
<p>The flora of Sylt is shaped by the island&#39;s original sparseness. Until the mid 19th century Sylt was an island almost completely devoid of trees, only artificial plantations created small areas of forest and bush. Still today one can recognize the man-made structure of the Friedrichshain and Südwäldchen forests in Westerland, the trees mostly standing in rank and file. Also the now widespread rose Rosa rugosa, known as the "Sylt rose" on the island was only imported to Sylt. It originates from the Kamchatka peninsula in Siberia. The undemanding rose met ideal conditions on Sylt and spread so quickly that it is now a common sight on the island. Its proliferation is viewed critically from a biological point of view, since it threatens to displace endangered local species, especially on the heaths.</p><br>
<p>The ample heaths on the eastern side of the island provide habitats for many rare species of plants and animals which are adapted to the extreme conditions such as drought, warmth, wind. About 2,500 animal species and 150 species of plants have so far been recorded. 45% of those plants are on the IUCN Red List. Especially notable are the 600 species of butterflies that live in the heaths, small tortoiseshell, brimstone, painted lady and peacock butterfly among them.</p><br>
<p>With several thousand individuals in the dune belt of Sylt, the natterjack toad, endangered in Germany, has one of Germany&#39;s largest populations here. Their spawning places are wet dune slacks and shallow, short-lived pools. For a habitat they prefer sandy areas with vegetation. The main threat for this species on Sylt is road traffic.</p><br>
<p>The many water birds and other coastal avians, that have their hatching grounds on Sylt or use the island for resting on their migrations constitute an ornithological feature. There are two notable hatching areas on Sylt, the Königshafen bay with the small island Uthörn in the north and the Rantum basin in the southeast. Birds that hatch on Sylt include black-headed gull, Arctic tern, pied avocet, common redshank, common gull, oystercatcher, northern lapwing, common shelduck and tufted duck. During the migration, Sylt is a resting spot for thousands of brent geese and shelducks, Eurasian wigeons and common eiders, as well as bar-tailed godwits, red knots, dunlins and Eurasian golden plovers. Ringed plover, common snipe, ruff and other species are less common visitors to the island.</p><br>
<p>Regarding land mammals, there is no significant difference from the neighbouring areas of mainland Nordfriesland. Primarily European hare, rabbit and roe deer can be found and are also hunted as game on the island. When the island was connected to the mainland by the causeway fox and badger also became common.</p><br>
<p>West of Sylt a breeding area of harbour porpoises is located. In addition, great numbers of harbour seals and grey seals, the latter being rather uncommon in German seas, can be found on sand banks off Sylt.</p><br>
<p>Numerous associations and societies that care for the exploration and the protection of endangered animals and plants have their branches on Sylt. Among them are the Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Verein Jordsand and Wadden Sea Conservation Station. Also the Federal Office for the Environment operates a research station in the dunes at Westerland.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>On Sylt, a marine climate influenced by the Gulf stream is predominant. With an average of 2 °C, winter months are slightly milder than on the mainland, summer months though, with a median of 17 °C, are somewhat cooler, despite a longer sunshine period. The annual average sunshine period on Sylt is 4.4 hours per day. It is due to the low relief of the shoreline that Sylt had a total of 1,899 hours of sunshine in 2005, 180 hours above the German average. Clouds cannot accumulate as quickly and are generally scattered by the constant westerly or northwesterly winds.</p><br>
<p>The annual mean temperature is 8.5 °C. The annually averaged wind speed measures 6.7 m/s, predominantly from western directions. The annual rainfall amounts to about 650 millimetres. Since 1937 weather data are collected at Deutscher Wetterdienst&#39;s northernmost station on a dune near List, which has meanwhile become automated. A number of commercial meteorological services like Meteomedia AG operate stations in List too.</p><br>
<p>Sylt features an oceanic climate that is influenced by the Gulf Stream. On average, the winter season is slightly warmer than in mainland Nordfriesland. The summer season, however, is cooler despite of longer sunshine periods. The yearly average sunshine period is greater than 4.4 hours per day with some years exceeding the average sunshine for all of Germany. Also precipitation is lower than on the mainland. This is due to the low relief of Sylt&#39;s shoreline where clouds are not able to accumulate and rain off.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Sylt is divided into two administrative bodies: the Amt Landschaft Sylt with its seat in Keitum administrates all municipalities on the island, save for the independent town of Westerland. As of December 2007, Sylt had 21,190 inhabitants, 9,072 of whom living in Westerland. These numbers do not include owners of summer residences.</p><br>
<p>A referendum held in May 2008 resulted in a merger of the Sylt-Ost municipality with the town of Westerland due 1 January 2009. Various interest groups hope to merge every island municipality into one governing body.</p><br>
<h3>Settlements along the west coast</h3><br>
<p>Six municipalities are situated along the west coast of Sylt. List in the very north of the island constitutes Germany&#39;s northernmost municipality, it retained a certain independence due to its remote location and its long-time adherence to the kingdom of Denmark. On its eastern shore, a harbour is located where, in addition to tourist ships, the "Sylt-Express" ferry-boat sails to Havneby on the Danish island Rømø. Wenningstedt together with Braderup and Kampen used to form the Norddörfer (Northern Villages) municipality, an early intercommunal association, which partly remains today in form of a school union. While Kampen, mainly in the 1950s and 1960s was famous in Germany for attracting celebrities, Wenningstedt has been known as a "family resort" for more than 100 years. Since 1855, the prominent black and white Kampen lighthouse is located between Kampen and Wenningstedt, it is the oldest one on the island. East of there, the Braderuper Heide nature reserve is situated. Right south of Wenningstedt are the town limits of the island&#39;s largest town, Westerland.</p><br>
<p>After the complete destruction of the village Eidum by a storm surge on 1 November 1436, the survivors founded a new village northeast of their old home: Westerland. The name was first recorded in 1462. In 1865 a seaside spa was founded, 50 years later Westerland was granted town privileges. In 1949 it was officially recognised as a health resort. In 2007, the town counted 9,072 citizens.</p><br>
<p>South of Westerland, the island extends for about 15 km in the form of a spit, until it is cut by the Hörnumtief tidal creek, that runs through the Wadden Sea mudflats east of Sylt. Here is the location of Rantum. This village, like no other on Sylt, had to fight sand drift during the past centuries. Many farmsteads and a church had to be abandoned because of shifting dunes moving eastward. Only the planting of marram grass stopped the dunes and put an end to this threat. To the east there are a few scattered spots of marshland, while the area is mostly dominated by dunes.</p><br>
<p>Hörnum on the island&#39;s southern headland is the youngest village, having been founded shortly after 1900. But already in former times the uninhabited southern tip of Sylt was said to serve as refuge for pirates and fishermen. The name Budersand in the area emanates from that custom, marking a great dune where booths (Buden) stood in former times to serve as shelters. This southern headland, called Odde, is marked by continuous loss of land. Each year great amounts of sand are washed away by storm floods and coastal management has not yet seen sustainable effects in the area, so that further losses have to be expected.</p><br>
<h3>Sylt-Ost</h3><br>
<p>Sylt-Ost (East Sylt) is a former municipality which was formed in 1970 out of several small villages on the Nössehalbinsel of Sylt. The population (as of 2000) was 5,500. The villages included Tinnum, Munkmarsch, Archsum, Morsum and Keitum. In 2009, Sylt-Ost merged with Westerland and Rantum to form Gemeinde Sylt.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Geographically, Sylt was originally part of Jutland (today Schleswig-Holstein and mainland Denmark), with evidence of human habitation going back to 3000 BC at Denghoog. The first settlements of Frisians appeared during the 8th century and 9th century. In 1386, Sylt was divided between the Duke of Schleswig and the King of Denmark; except for the village of List, Sylt became part of the Duchy of Schleswig in 1435.</p><br>
<p>During the 17th and 18th century, whaling, fishing and oyster breeding increased the wealth of the population. At this time, Keitum became the capital of the island, and a place for rich captains to settle down. In the 19th century, tourism began. Westerland replaced Keitum as the capital. During World War I, Sylt became a military outpost. On 25 March 1916 British seaplanes bombed the German airship sheds on Sylt. The main connection for tourists was boats from Højer. Since Højer was ceded to Denmark in 1920, a rail causeway to the mainland was built in 1927, the Hindenburgdamm, named after Paul von Hindenburg. During World War II, Sylt became a fortress, with concrete bunkers built below the dunes at the shore, some of which are still visible today. Lager Sylt, the concentration camp on Alderney was named after the island. Rudolf Höss hid on the island after Nazi Germany&#39;s defeat, but he was later captured and brought to trial in Poland.</p><br>
<p>Today, Sylt is mainly a tourist destination, famous for its sandy beaches and healthy climate. The 40 km west beach has a number of surf schools and also a nude section. The Windsurf World Cup Sylt, established in 1984, is annually held at Westerland&#39;s beach front. Sylt is also popular for second home owners, and many German celebrities who own vacation homes on "the island".</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Sylt is a part of the Frisian Islands. It has its own local dialect, Söl&#39;ring, which is the indigenous speech of Sylt. Söl&#39;ring is a dialect of insular North Frisian, with elements of Danish, Dutch and English. Today, only a small fraction of the population still speak Söl&#39;ring. A law to promote the language (Friesisch-Gesetz) was passed in 2004. The northernmost part of the island, Listland, was traditionally Danish-speaking.</p><br>
<p>As in many areas in Schleswig-Holstein on New Year&#39;s Eve, groups of children go masked from house to house, reciting poems. This is known as "Rummelpottlaufen", and as a reward, children receive sweets and/or money.</p><br>
<p>Sylt also features many Frisian-style houses with thatched roofs.</p><br>
<p>The vowel sound in the name of the island is represented in standard written German as "y" for unknown reasons, whereas the expected spelling of the name would be "Sült".</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Sylt is connected to the German mainland by the Hindenburgdamm, a causeway with a railway line on top. The passenger trains connect Westerland (Sylt) to Niebüll or Klanxbüll, and the Deutsche Bahn&#39;s "Syltshuttle" as well as RDC&#39;s "Autozug Sylt", allow the transfer of cars and trucks between Westerland and Niebüll. There are also ferry services to the nearby Danish island of Rømø. Sylt Airport at Westerland serves the region.</p><br>
<h2>In other media</h2><br>
<p>The island was used during the filming of The Ghost Writer, as an alternate location for Martha&#39;s Vineyard, due to the film&#39;s director, Roman Polanski being unable to travel to the United States, due to an outstanding arrest warrant for rape. The ferry between the islands of Sylt and Rømø features prominently in the film.</p><br>
<p>Cook Strait  lies between the North and South Islands of New Zealand. It connects the Tasman Sea on the northwest with the South Pacific Ocean on the southeast, and runs next to the capital city, Wellington. It is 22 km wide at its narrowest point, and is considered one of the most dangerous and unpredictable waters in the world.</p><br>
<p>The strait is named after James Cook, the first European commander to sail through it, in 1770. In Māori it has the name Raukawa or Te Moana-o-Raukawa. Raukawa may mean "bitter leaves".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In Māori legend, Cook Strait was discovered by Kupe the navigator. Kupe followed in his canoe a monstrous octopus called Te Wheke-a-Muturangi across Cook Strait and destroyed it in Tory Channel or at Pātea.</p><br>
<p>When Dutch explorer Abel Tasman first saw New Zealand in 1642, he thought Cook Strait was a bight closed to the east. He named it Zeehaen&#39;s Bight, after the Zeehaen, one of the two ships in his expedition. In 1769 James Cook established that it was a strait, which formed a navigable waterway.</p><br>
<p>Cook Strait attracted European settlers in the early 19th century. Because of its use as a whale migration route, whalers established bases in the Marlborough Sounds and in the Kapiti area. From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. Perano Head on the east coast of the island was the principal whaling station for the area. The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation.</p><br>
<p>During the 1820s Te Rauparaha led a Māori migration to, and the conquest and settlement of, the Cook Strait region.</p><br>
<p>From 1840 more permanent settlements sprang up, first at Wellington, then at Nelson and at Whanganui (Petre). At this period the settlers saw Cook Strait in a broader sense than todays ferry-oriented New Zealanders: for them the strait stretched from Taranaki to Cape Campbell, so these early towns all clustered around "Cook Strait" (or "Cooks Strait", in the pre-Geographic Board usage of the times) as the central feature and central waterway of the new colony.</p><br>
<p>Between 1888 and 1912 a Risso&#39;s dolphin named Pelorus Jack became famous for meeting and escorting ships around the Cook Strait. Pelorus Jack was usually spotted in Admiralty Bay between Cape Francis and Collinet Point, near French Pass, a channel used by ships travelling between Wellington and Nelson. Pelorus Jack is also remembered after he was the subject of a failed assassination attempt. He was later protected by a 1904 New Zealand law.</p><br>
<p>At times when New Zealand feared invasion, various coastal fortifications were constructed to defend Cook Strait. During the Second World War, two 9.2 inch (23 cm) gun installations were constructed on Wrights Hill behind Wellington. These gun could range 18 mi across Cook Strait. In addition thirteen 6-inch (15 cm) gun installations were constructed around Wellington, along the Makara coast, and at entrances to the Marlborough Sounds. The remains of most of these fortifications can still be seen.</p><br>
<p>The Pencarrow Head Lighthouse was the first permanent lighthouse built in New Zealand. Its first keeper, Mary Jane Bennett, was the only female lighthouse keeper in New Zealand&#39;s history. The light was decommissioned in 1935 when it was replaced by the Baring Head Lighthouse.</p><br>
<p>A number of ships have been wrecked with significant loss of life, such as the Maria in 1851, the City of Dunedin in 1865, the St Vincent in 1869, the Lastingham in 1884, in 1909 and in 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The strait runs in a general NW-SE direction, with the South Island on the west side and North Island on the east. At its narrowest point, 22 km separate Cape Terawhiti in the North Island from Perano Head on Arapaoa Island in the Marlborough Sounds. Perano Head is actually further north than Cape Terawhiti. In good weather one can see clearly across the strait.</p><br>
<p>The west (South Island) coast runs 30 km along Cloudy Bay and past the islands and entrances to the Marlborough Sounds. The east (North Island) coast runs 40 km along Palliser Bay, crosses the entrance to Wellington harbour, past some Wellington suburbs and continues another 15 km to Makara beach.</p><br>
<p>The Brothers is a group of tiny islands in Cook Strait off the east coast of Arapaoa Island. North Brother island in this small chain is a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara, while the largest of the islands is the site of the Brothers Island Lighthouse.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The shores of Cook Strait on both sides are mostly composed of steep cliffs. The beaches of Cloudy Bay, Clifford Bay, and Palliser Bay shoal gently down to 140 m, where there is a more or less extensive submarine plateau. The rest of the bottom topography is complex. To the east is the Cook Strait Canyon with steep walls descending eastwards into the bathyal depths of the Hikurangi Trench. To the north-west lies the Narrows Basin, where water is 300 and deep. Fisherman&#39;s Rock in the north end of the Narrows Basin rises to within a few metres of low tide, and is marked by waves breaking in rough weather. A relatively shallow submarine valley lies across the northern end of the Marlborough Sounds. The bottom topography is particularly irregular around the coast of the South Island where the presence of islands, underwater rocks, and the entrances to the sounds, create violent eddies. The strait has an average depth of 128 m.</p><br>
<p>The South and North Islands were joined during the last ice age.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<p>The waters of Cook Strait are dominated by strong tidal flows. The tidal flow through Cook Strait is unusual in that the tidal elevation at the ends of the strait are almost exactly out of phase with one another, so high water on one side meets low water on the other. Strong currents result, with almost zero tidal height change in the centre of the strait. Although the tidal surge should flow in one direction for six hours and then the reverse direction for six hours, a particular surge might last eight or ten hours with the reverse surge enfeebled. In especially boisterous weather conditions the reverse surge can be negated, and the flow can remain in the same direction through three surge periods and longer. This is indicated on marine charts for the region. Furthermore, the submarine ridges running off from the coast complicate the ocean flow and turbulence.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous computer models of the tidal flow through Cook Strait. While the tidal components are readily realizable, the residual flow is more difficult to model.</p><br>
<h2>Tidal power</h2><br>
<p>In April 2008, a resource consent was granted to Neptune Power for the installation of a $10 million experimental underwater tidal stream turbine capable of producing one megawatt. The turbine has been designed in Britain, and will be built in New Zealand. It will be 14 m in diameter and constructed of carbon fibre. It will be placed in 80 m of water, 4.5 km due south of Sinclair Head, in waters known as the “Karori rip”. Power from the turbine will be brought ashore at the Island Bay substation. The turbine is a pilot, and will be sited in slower tides for testing. Neptune hopes to generate power from the unit by 2010. The company claims there is enough tidal movement in Cook Strait to generate 12 GW of power, more than one-and-a-half times New Zealand&#39;s current requirements. In practice, only some of this energy could be harnessed. As of October 2016 the Neptune Power website is a placeholder with no further announcements.</p><br>
<p>On the other side of the strait, Energy Pacifica has applied for resource consent to install up to 10 marine turbines, each able to produce up to 1.2 MW, near the Cook Strait entrance to Tory Channel. The company claims that Tory Channel is an optimal site with a tidal current speed of 3.6 m/s and the best combination of bathymetry and accessibility to the electricity network.</p><br>
<p>The power generated by tidal marine turbines varies as the cube of the tidal speed. Because the tidal speed doubles, eight times more tidal power is produced during spring tides than at neaps.</p><br>
<h2>Cables</h2><br>
<p>Electric power and communication cables link the North and South Islands across Cook Strait, operated by Transpower.</p><br>
<p>Three submarine power cables cross Cook Strait between Oteranga Bay in the North Island and Fighting Bay in the South Island as part of the HVDC Inter-Island, which provides an electricity link between Benmore in the South island and Haywards in the North Island. Each cable operates at 350 kV, and can carry up to 500 MW, with Pole 2 of the link using one cable and Pole 3 using two cables. The link&#39;s capacity is 1200 MW, but restricted to 1000 MW due to inadequate voltage support at Haywards. The cables are laid on the seabed within a legally defined zone called the cable protection zone (CPZ). The CPZ is about 7 km wide for most of its length, narrowing where it nears the terminals on each shore. Fishing activities and anchoring boats are prohibited within the CPZ.</p><br>
<p>Fibre optic cables carry telecommunications across Cook Strait, used by New Zealand’s main telecommunication companies for domestic and commercial traffic and by Transpower for control of the HVDC link.</p><br>
<h2>Marine life</h2><br>
<p>Cook Strait is an important habitat for many cetacean species. Several dolphins (bottlenose, common, dusky) frequent the area along with killer whales and the endemic Hectors dolphins. Long-finned pilot whales often strand en masse at Golden Bay. The famous Pelorus Jack was a Rissos dolphin being observed escorting the ships between 1888 and 1912, though this species is not a common visitor to the New Zealand&#39;s waters. Large migratory whales attracted many whalers to the area in the winter. Currently, an annual survey of counting humpback whales is taken by Department of Conservation and former whalers help DOC to spot animals by using several vantage points along the strait such as on Stephens Island. Other occasional visitors include southern right whales, blue whales, sei whales and sperm whales. Giant squid specimens have been washed ashore around Cook Strait or found in the stomachs of sperm whales off Kaikoura.</p><br>
<p>A colony of male fur seals has long been established near Red Rocks on the south Wellington coast. Cook Strait offers good game fishing. Albacore tuna can be caught from January to May. Broadbill swordfish, bluenose, mako sharks and the occasional marlin and white shark can also be caught.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Regular ferry services run between Picton in the Marlborough Sounds and Wellington, operated by KiwiRail (the Interislander) and Strait Shipping (Bluebridge). Both companies run services several times a day. Roughly half the crossing is in the strait, and the remainder within the Sounds. The journey covers 70 km and takes about three hours. The strait often experiences rough water and heavy swells from strong winds, especially from the south. New Zealand&#39;s position directly athwart the roaring forties means that the strait funnels westerly winds and deflects them into northerlies. As a result, ferry sailings are often disrupted and Cook Strait is regarded as one of the most dangerous and unpredictable waters in the world. On 10 April 1968, the, a Wellington–Lyttelton ferry of the Union Company, foundered at the entrance to Wellington Harbour and capsized. Of the 610 passengers and 123 crew on board, 53 died.</p><br>
<p>Air lines which operate or have operated flights across Cook Strait include Straits Air Freight Express, Air2there, CityJet and Sounds Air.</p><br>
<h2>Swimming</h2><br>
<p>According to oral tradition, the first woman to swim Cook Strait was Hine Poupou. She swam from Kapiti Island to D&#39;Urville Island with the help of a dolphin. Other Māori accounts tell of at least one swimmer who conquered the strait in 1831.</p><br>
<p>In modern times, the strait was first swum by Barrie Devenport in 1962. Lynne Cox was the first woman to swim it, in 1975. The most prolific swimmer of the strait is Philip Rush, who has crossed eight times, including two double crossings. Aditya Raut was the youngest swimmer at 11 years. Caitlin O&#39;Reilly was the youngest female swimmer and youngest New Zealander at 12 years. Pam Dickson was the oldest swimmer at 55 years. By 2010, 74 single crossings had been made by 65 individuals, and three double crossings had been made by two individuals (Philip Rush and Meda McKenzie). In March 2016, Marilyn Korzekwa became the first Canadian and oldest woman, at 58 years old, to swim the strait. Marilyn swam to raise funds and awareness for Canadian charity, Sashbear.org. Crossing times are largely determined by the strong and sometimes unpredictable currents that operate in the strait.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>Prehistory: The mythical navigator Kupe follows, in his canoe, the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi across Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>1642: Abel Tasman mistook Cook Strait for a bight.</p><br>
<p>1769: James Cook established it is a strait</p><br>
<p>1822: Ngati Toa migrated to Cook Strait region, led by Te Rauparaha.</p><br>
<p>1831: Whaling station established in Tory Channel.</p><br>
<p>1851: Maria wrecked in on rocks at Cape Terawhiti, 26 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1855: Severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>1865: PS City of Dunedin sank in Cook Strait, 39 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1866: Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.</p><br>
<p>1869: St Vincent wrecked in Palliser Bay, 20 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1879: Kangaroo laid the first telegraph cable across Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>1884: Lastingham wrecked at Cape Jackson, 18 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1904: Pelorus Jack was protected by New Zealand law</p><br>
<p>1909: wrecked in Cook Strait, 75 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1920: First aeroplane flight across Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>1935: Air services began across Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>1962: Cook Strait rail ferry service began.</p><br>
<p>1962: Barrie Devenport swims the strait.</p><br>
<p>1964: Cook Strait power cables laid.</p><br>
<p>1968: wrecked at entrance to Wellington harbour, 53 people killed.</p><br>
<p>1975: Lynne Cox became the first woman to swim the strait.</p><br>
<p>1979: Paul Caffyn crossed the strait in a sea kayak.</p><br>
<p>1984: Philip Rush swam the strait both ways.</p><br>
<p>1984: Meda McKenzie became the first woman to swim the strait both ways.</p><br>
<p>1991: Five new power and communication cables laid</p><br>
<p>1994: First fast-ferry service began operation across Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>2002: Two further communications cables laid.</p><br>
<p>2005: The retired frigate was sunk off Wellington as an artificial reef.</p><br>
<p>2008: A resource consent was granted to to install a $10 million experimental underwater tidal stream turbine capable of producing one megawatt.</p><br>
<p>2008: Energy Pacifica applies for resource consent to install up to 10 marine turbines, each able to produce up to 1.2 MW, near the Cook Strait entrance to Tory Channel.</p><br>
<p>2013: Two large earthquakes measuring 6.5 and 6.6 on the Richter Scale struck Cook Strait, causing significant damage in the town of Seddon, with minor to moderate damage in Wellington.</p><br>
<p>The Visayas or the Visayan Islands , is one of the three principal geographical divisions of the Philippines, along with Luzon and Mindanao. It consists of several islands, primarily surrounding the Visayan Sea, although the Visayas are considered the northeast extremity of the entire Sulu Sea. Its inhabitants are predominantly the Visayan people.</p><br>
<p>The major islands of the Visayas are Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar. The region may also include the provinces of Masbate, Romblon, and Palawan whose populations identify as Visayan and whose languages are more closely related to other Visayan languages than to the major languages of Luzon.</p><br>
<p>There are three administrative regions in the Visayas: Western Visayas (pop. 7.1 million), Central Visayas (6.8 million) and Eastern Visayas (4.1 million). The Negros Island Region existed from 2015 to 2017, separating Negros Occidental and its capital Bacolod from Western Visayas and Negros Oriental from Central Visayas. The region has been dissolved since.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The term Visayas was derived from the name of the 7th-century thalassocratic empire of Srivijaya (श्रीविजय) in Sumatra. In Sanskrit, sri (श्री) means "fortunate," "prosperous," or "happy" and vijaya (विजय) means "victorious" or "excellent". The archipelagoes of Visayas and Sulu were once Hindu-Buddhist and were either subject states or tributaries of the empire.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The early inhabitants of the Visayas were the Austronesian peoples and Ati peoples, who migrated to the archipelago about 6,000 to 30,000 years ago. These early settlers were animist tribes. In the 12th century, settlers from the collapsing Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya Empire led by Datu Putih and his retinue, settled in the island of Panay and its surrounding islands. It was also during the 12th century that Visayans are said to have made a series of raids along the southern coasts of China. They were said to have a fearsome reputation, and the mention of their names would cause many to flee in horror and terror. These tribes practiced a mixture of Hinduism, Buddhism, Animist-Polytheist beliefs. Besides the neighbouring Southeast Asians, there is evidence of trade among other Asian peoples. The Visayans were thought to have kept close diplomatic relations with Malaysian and Indonesian kingdoms, since the people of Cebu were able to converse with Enrique of Malacca using the Malay language when the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521. The Visayas is subsequently home to several Precolonial kingdoms, like the Kedatuan of Madja-as (now Western Visayas), the Rajahnate of Cebu and the Kedatuan of Dapitan. Among the archaeological proofs of the existence of this Hiligaynon nation are the artifacts found in pre-European tombs from many parts of the island, which are now in display at Iloilo Museum. There are also recent discoveries of burial artifacts of eight-foot inhabitants of Isla de Gigantes, including extra-large Lungon (wooden coffins) and pre-Hispanic potteries.</p><br>
<p>After the Magellan expedition, King Philip II of Spain sent Miguel López de Legazpi in 1543 and 1565 and claimed the islands for Spain. The Visayas region and many kingdoms began converting to Christianity and adopting western culture. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the effects of colonization on various ethnic groups soon turned sour and revolutions such as those of Francisco Dagohoy began to emerge.</p><br>
<p>Various personalities who fought against the Imperial Spanish Colonial Government arose within the archipelago. Among the notable ones are Graciano Lopez Jaena and Martin Delgado from Iloilo, Aniceto Lacson, León Kilat and Diego de la Viña from Negros, Venancio Jakosalem Fernandez from Cebu, and two personalities from Bohol by the name of Tamblot, who led the Tamblot Uprising in 1621 to 1622 and Francisco Dagohoy, the leader of the Bohol Rebellion that lasted from 1744 to 1829. Negros briefly stood as an independent nation in the Visayas in the form of the Cantonal Republic of Negros, before it was absorbed back to the Philippines because of the American takeover of the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>In May 23 of 2005, Palawan (including its highly-urbanized capital city of Puerto Princesa) were transferred from MIMAROPA (Region IV-B) to Western Visayas (Region VI) under Executive Order No. 429, signed by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who was the president at that year. However, Palaweños criticized the move, citing a lack of consultation, with most residents in Puerto Princesa and all Palawan municipalities but one preferring to stay in MIMAROPA (Region IV-B). Consequently, Administrative Order No. 129 was issued on 19 August 2005 that the implementation of E.O. 429 be held in abeyance, pending approval by the president of its Implementation Plan. The Philippine Commission on Elections reported the 2010 Philippine general election results for Palawan as a part of the Region IV-B results., the abeyance was still in effect, with Palawan and its capital city remaining under MIMAROPA (Region IV-B).</p><br>
<p>In May 29 of 2015, the twin provinces of Negros Occidental (including its highly-urbanized capital city of Bacolod) and Negros Oriental were joined together to form the Negros Island Region under Executive Order No. 183, signed by President Benigno Aquino III. It separated both, the former province and its capital city from Western Visayas and the latter province from Central Visayas.</p><br>
<p>On August 9 of 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte signed Executive Order No. 38, revoking the Executive Order No. 183 signed by (former) President Benigno Aquino III on May 29 of 2015, due to the reason of the lack of funds to fully establish the NIR according to Benjamin Diokno, the Secretary of Budget and Management.</p><br>
<h3>Mythical allusions and hypotheses</h3><br>
<p>Historical documents written in 1907 by Visayan historian Pedro Alcántara Monteclaro in his book Maragtas tell the story of the ten leaders (Datus) who escaped from the tyranny of Rajah Makatunaw from Borneo and came to the islands of Panay. The chiefs and followers were said to be the ancestors (from the collapsing empires of Srivijaya and Majapahit) of the Visayan people. The documents were accepted by Filipino historians and found their way into the history of the Philippines. As a result, the arrival of Bornean tribal groups in the Visayas is celebrated in the festivals of the Ati-Atihan in Kalibo, Aklan and Binirayan in San Jose de Buenavista, Antique. Foreign historians such as William Henry Scott maintains that the book contains a Visayan folk tradition. Panay boasts of the Hinilawod as its oldest and longest epic.</p><br>
<p>A contemporary theory based on a study of genetic markers in present-day populations is that Austronesian peoples from Taiwan populated the larger island of Luzon and headed south to the Visayas and Mindanao, and then to Indonesia and Malaysia, then to Pacific Islands and finally to the island of Madagascar, at the west of the Indian Ocean. The study, though, may not explain inter-island migrations, which are also possible, such as Filipinos migrating to any other Philippine provinces.</p><br>
<p>According to Visayan folk traditions, the Visayas were populated by Malays from the collapsing empires of Srivijaya and Majapahit migrating from Borneo to Mindanao and to the Visayas, while other Malay groups crossed to Palawan through Sabah. Other Malays were suggested to have crossed from the island of Samar to the Bicol Region in Luzon. The theory suggests that those ancient tribal groups who passed through Palawan may have migrated to what is now the island of Luzon.</p><br>
<p>A supplementary theory was that at that period, the Malay people were moving north from Mindanao to the Visayas and to Luzon.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>The major islands, from west to east, are Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the Visayas is divided into 3 regions, namely Western Visayas, Central Visayas and Eastern Visayas. Each region is headed by a Regional Director who is elected from a pool of governors from the different provinces in each region.</p><br>
<p>The Visayas is composed of 16 provinces, each headed by a Governor. A governor is elected by popular vote and can serve a maximum of three terms consisting of three years each.</p><br>
<h3>Western Visayas (Region VI)</h3><br>
<p>Western Visayas consists of the islands of Panay and Guimaras and the western half of Negros. The regional center is Iloilo City. Its provinces are:</p><br>
<p>Aklan</p><br>
<p>Antique</p><br>
<p>Capiz</p><br>
<p>Guimaras</p><br>
<p>Iloilo</p><br>
<p>Negros Occidental</p><br>
<h3>Central Visayas (Region VII)</h3><br>
<p>Central Visayas includes the islands of Cebu, Siquijor and Bohol and the eastern half of Negros. The regional center is Cebu City. Its provinces are:</p><br>
<p>Bohol</p><br>
<p>Cebu</p><br>
<p>Negros Oriental</p><br>
<p>Siquijor</p><br>
<h3>Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)</h3><br>
<p>Eastern Visayas consists of the islands of Leyte,</p><br>
<p>Samar and Biliran. The regional center is Tacloban City. Its provinces are:</p><br>
<p>Biliran</p><br>
<p>Leyte</p><br>
<p>Southern Leyte</p><br>
<p>Eastern Samar</p><br>
<p>Northern Samar</p><br>
<p>Samar</p><br>
<h2>Major cities and municipalities</h2><br>
<p>Below is a list of cities and major towns in the Visayas by population.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>Languages spoken at home are primarily Visayan languages despite the usual misconception that these are dialects of a single macrolanguage. Major languages include Hiligaynon or Ilonggo in much of Western Visayas, Cebuano in Central Visayas, and Waray in Eastern Visayas. Other dominant languages are Aklanon, Kinaray-a, and Capiznon. Filipino, the national language based on Tagalog, is widely understood but seldom used. English, another official language, is more widely known and is preferred as the second language most especially among urbanized Visayans. For instance, English rather than Tagalog is frequently used in schools, public signs and mass media.</p><br>
<p>Neeltje Jans is an artificial island in the Netherlands in the province of Zeeland, halfway between Noord-Beveland and Schouwen-Duiveland in the Oosterschelde. It was constructed to facilitate the construction of the Oosterscheldedam.</p><br>
<p>After the construction, a fun park with attractions and other various expositions were built on the island, which are now connected to the shore through the dam. Another addition of the island is a nature reserve.</p><br>
<p>The island was named after a nearby sand bank. The name of this sandbank has two possible origins:</p><br>
<p>It could be named after a boat with the name Neeltje Jans, stranded on the sandbank. Neeltje is a Dutch first name (a diminutive from Cornelia or Neelie like in Neelie Kroes). Jans is a familiar surname (meaning a son or daughter of Jan).</p><br>
<p>It could be named after a goddess of the sea, Nehalennia.</p><br>
<p>The second stage of the 2015 Tour de France finished on Neeltje Jans on 5 July 2015.</p><br>
<p>The Rhine Falls  is the largest waterfall in Switzerland, Europe.</p><br>
<p>The falls are located on the High Rhine on the border between the cantons of Schaffhausen (SH) and Zürich (ZH), between the municipalities of Neuhausen am Rheinfall (SH) and Laufen-Uhwiesen/Dachsen (ZH), next to the town of Schaffhausen in northern Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>They are 150 m wide and 23 m high. In the winter months, the average water flow is 250 m3/s, while in the summer, the average water flow is 600 m3/s. The highest flow ever measured was 1,250 m³/s in 1965; and the lowest, 95 m³/s in 1921.</p><br>
<p>The falls can not be climbed by fish, except by eels that are able to worm their way up over the rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Rhine Falls were formed in the last ice age, approximately 14,000 to 17,000 years ago, by erosion-resistant rocks narrowing the riverbed. The first glacial advances created today&#39;s landforms approximately 500,000 years ago. Up to the end of the Wolstonian Stage approximately 132,000 years ago, the Rhine flowed westwards from Schaffhausen past Klettgau. This earlier riverbed later filled up with gravel.</p><br>
<p>About 132,000 years ago the course of the river changed southwards at Schaffhausen and formed a new channel, which also filled up with gravel. Part of the Rhine today includes this ancient riverbed.</p><br>
<p>During the Würm glaciation, the Rhine was pushed far to the south to its present course, over a hard Late Jurassic limestone bed. As the river flowed over both the hard limestone and the easily eroded gravel from previous glaciations, the current waterfall formed about 14,000 to 17,000 years ago. The Rheinfallfelsen, a large rock, is the remnant of the original limestone cliff flanking the former channel. The rock has eroded very little over the years because relatively little sediment comes down the Rhine from Lake Constance.</p><br>
<h2>Economics</h2><br>
<p>The north side of the falls is a millsite. In the 17th century, a blast furnace for smelting iron ore found in the limestone was built. It was in operation until the first half of the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1887 the ironworks applied for permission to divert between one fifth to one half of the river&#39;s flow for electricity generation. The Swiss Alpine Club, the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft (a nature group) and several scientific societies opposed the plan.</p><br>
<p>In 1913 an international competition was held for the best plan for a shipping route between Basel and Lake Constance.</p><br>
<p>In 1919, a company wanting to build power stations in northern Switzerland were told that any such station at the Rhine Falls "must serve the economic interest of the public".</p><br>
<p>In 1944, the Swiss Council of States granted permission to build the proposed power station. The permission was to become effective on 1 February 1948, with construction to begin in 1952. But in 1951, the Neuen Helvetischen Gesellschaft (New Swiss Society), under the leadership of Emil Egli, got 150,000 Swiss citizens to sign a petition protesting the project; among the signatories were 49 famous citizens, including Hermann Hesse and Carl Jacob Burckhardt. The petition not only scuttled the power station project, but effectively prevented all future hydropower and navigation engineering projects on the upper Rhine to the present day.</p><br>
<p>Today, the falls are still under consideration for hydropower projects. If the full water flow were used, the power generated would average approximately 50 MW. The economic value of the falls as a tourist attraction may be greater.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The nearest community is Neuhausen am Rheinfall, where tourists can also view the Wörth Castle. Boat trips can be taken up the Rhine to the falls and the Rheinfallfelsen. There are also viewing platforms with a spectacular view of the falls built on both sides of the Rhine. These are reached via steep and narrow stairs (access by fee on the Schloss Laufen side). Guided tours of various lengths start from Schloss Laufen on the Zürich side of the falls - a youth hostel is also located in Schloss Laufen. Various restaurants are located in Schloss Laufen, Schloss Wörth and the Rheinfall park.</p><br>
<p>The Rhine Falls are easily accessible by car, bicycle and public transport (SBB railway station "Neuhausen am Rheinfall" on the northern side of the falls and SBB railway station "Schloss Laufen am Rheinfall" on the southern banks of the river). Large pay-parking lots are located on both sides of the falls.</p><br>
<p>Tourists have been awed by the Rhine Falls for centuries. In the 19th century, the painter J. M. W. Turner made several studies and larger paintings of the falls, and the lyrical poet Eduard Mörike wrote of the falls:</p><br>
<p>In 1840, author Mary Shelley visited the Falls while on a tour of Europe with her son. She described her visit in a travel narrative that she published in 1844, Rambles in Germany and Italy. She says: "A portion of the cataract arches over the lowest platform, and the spray fell thickly on us, as standing on it and looking up, we saw wave, and rock, and cloud, and the clear heavens through its glittering ever-moving veil. This was a new sight, exceeding anything I had ever before seen; however, not to be wet through, I was obliged quickly to tear myself away.".</p><br>
<p>Veii  was an important ancient Etruscan city situated on the southern limits of Etruria and only 16 km north-northwest of Rome, Italy. It now lies in Isola Farnese, in the comune of Rome. Many other sites associated with and in the city-state of Veii are in Formello, immediately to the north. Formello is named after the drainage channels that were first created by the Veians.</p><br>
<p>Veii was the richest city of the Etruscan League. It was alternately at war and in alliance with the Roman Kingdom and later Republic for over 300 years. It eventually fell in the Battle of Veii to Roman general Camillus&#39;s army in 396 BC. Veii continued to be occupied after its capture by the Romans.</p><br>
<p>The site is now a protected area, part of the Parco di Veio established by the regional authority of Lazio in 1997.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<h3>City of Veii</h3><br>
<p>The city of Veii lies mainly on a tuff plateau of area 190 hectare.</p><br>
<p>The Valchetta flows a few miles eastward to join the Tiber River on the south side of Labaro along the Via Flaminia and Veii&#39;s territory included this area.</p><br>
<p>Its proximity to the Tiber and the trade route to the interior, which became the Via Flaminia, augmented its prosperity but also placed it in competition with Rome for the domination of Latium.</p><br>
<p>The temple of Juno was the greatest and most honoured in the city.</p><br>
<p>The largest visible monument is the sanctuary of Minerva from the 7th c. BC, situated along an important route just outside the city (at modern Portonaccio). The sanctuary was one of the oldest and most revered in Etruria, standing out for its sumptuous polychrome terracotta decorations, many of which can be seen today in the Villa Giulia. The sanctuary included the temple of Apollo of about 510 BC to which belonged the Apollo of Veii (now in the National Etruscan Museum).</p><br>
<p>The impressive thermal baths and the forum built under Augustus have been partially excavated in recent years.</p><br>
<p>Many rich Tumuli and chamber tombs have been found. The most famous is the Grotta Campana uncovered in 1843, a chamber tomb with the oldest known Etruscan frescoes.</p><br>
<p>There are also long tunnels leading into the plateau of the city, which may corroborate Livy&#39;s account of the Roman victory in the Battle of Veii.</p><br>
<p>The walls of Veii, of which small sections remain, bordered the two intersecting streams using the streambeds as a ditch, with a wall across the plateau closing the triangle.</p><br>
<h3>Piazza d'Armi</h3><br>
<p>Every Etruscan stronghold was built on an elevation, and Veii was no exception. Its arx, or citadel, was placed on a bluff delineated by cliffs within the angle of confluence of the two streams, nearly separated from the main ridge by a gully, through which ran a road in the Roman period. An archaeological site, Piazza d&#39;Armi ("military square"), marks the location today.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The earliest evidence of occupation by demographic analysis, including that of the cemeteries, dates from the 10th century BC in the Late Bronze Age. Small settlements were scattered over a wider area than the plateau and the population of the plateau at Veii is estimated to have been stable at about 1000. In the 9th century BC, the Early Iron Age (Villanovan culture), the finds are localised to the plateau but appear to be associated with independent settlements, each with its own cemetery. Occupation gradually intensified in the 8th (remainder of Villanovan) and 7th (Orientalising Period) centuries BC, by conurbation of the settlements as the site assumed an urban appearance with city blocks in a grid pattern arranged around a central square containing a water cistern. That evidence suggests that the city of Veii was shaped into its classical form in the 7th century BC by a population, presumably Etruscan, first settling there in the 10th century BC.</p><br>
<p>The population of the early Veii practised both inhumation and cremation within the same family. The proportion was 50% in the 9th century BC, after a predomination of cremation (90%) earlier. In the 8th century, inhumation rose to 70%, which may be attributable to an influence from Latium, where inhumation prevailed in the 9th century BC.</p><br>
<p>During the 9th and 8th centuries BC, the population density and grave goods were on the increase: more and wealthier people and also more of a disparity in wealth: the rise of a richer class. In the 8th century BC, both the potter&#39;s wheel and writing were introduced from Greece. During the entire period, the settlements translocated around the plateau; however, a settlement (Casale del Fosso) maintained a cemetery to the north of the plateau continuously from the late 9th century BC to the early 6th century BC.</p><br>
<h3>Conflict with Rome</h3><br>
<p>The documented history of Veii, like that of all Italian cities in their early centuries, is sparse and unreliable.</p><br>
<p>According to Livy (writing 700 years later), during the reign of Rome&#39;s mythical first king, Romulus, in the 8th century BC, the Fidenates and the Veientes were defeated in a war with Rome.</p><br>
<p>Plutarch (writing even later in the 1st C. AD) says of them:The first (to oppose Romulus) were the Veientes, a people of Tuscany (the site is now in Lazio), who had large possessions, and dwelt in a spacious city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as belonging to them....</p><br>
<p>Fidenae and Veii were said to have again been defeated by Rome in the 7th century BC during the reign of Rome&#39;s third king Tullus Hostilius.</p><br>
<p>In the 6th century BC Rome&#39;s sixth king Servius Tullius warred against Veii (after the expiry of an earlier truce) and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. The war helped him to cement his position at Rome.</p><br>
<p>In 509 BC, after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the family of Tarquinius Superbus went into exile in Caere in Etruria. Tarquin sought to regain the throne, at first by the Tarquinian conspiracy and, when that failed, by force of arms. He convinced the cities of Tarquinii and Veii to support him, and led their armies against Rome in the Battle of Silva Arsia. The Roman army was victorious, and it is recorded by Livy that although the forces of Tarquinii fought well on the right wing, initially pushing back the Roman left wing, the Veientes on the left wing faltered and fled the battle, because they were accustomed to defeat at the hands of the Romans. After the loss of the battle the forces of Veii returned home. Livy writes that later in 509 BC, consul Publius Valerius Publicola returned to fight the Veientes.</p><br>
<p>The most famous king of Veii was Lars Tolumnus whose family was part of the Veientine aristocracy and who instigated a war with Rome in 438 BC. The nearby Roman colony of Fidenae revolted against Rome and allied itself with Veii, giving Tolumnus control of the Fidenate army. The Romans sent four envoys to demand an explanation but they were murdered. Rome declared war against Veii and sent Lucius Sergius with an army who won the battle but the Roman losses were so high that a state of emergency was declared. A subsequent fiercely-fought battle with Veii in 437 BC reinforced by a contingent from Falerii was indecisive until the tribune Aulus Cornelius Cossus unhorsed Tolumnus and killed him with his spear.</p><br>
<p>In 406 BC, Rome declared war against Veii, still powerful and well-fortified, and her allies Falerii and Capena which required the Romans to commence a siege lasting many years. As Plutarch says:</p><br>
<p>Veii had been the capital of Etruria, not inferior to Rome, either in number of arms or multitude of soldiers, so that relying on her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her refinement and sumptuousness, she had engaged in many honourable contests with the Romans for glory and empire.......... as the city was furnished with all sorts of weapons, offensive and defensive, likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, they cheerfully endured a siege</p><br>
<p>After ten years, in 396 BC, the Romans appointed Camillus as dictator. After defeating both Falerii and Capena at Nepete, Camillus commanded the final strike against Veii. He dug into the soft tuff rock below the walls whilst distracting the Veiians with attacks on the walls and infiltrated the citys drainage system to emerge in the citadel, leading to their defeat. Not interested in surrender but only in Veiis complete destruction, the Romans slaughtered the entire adult male population and made slaves of all the women and children. The plunder was very rich and extensive including the statue of Juno taken to Rome.</p><br>
<p>Camillus supported the patricians in opposing the plebeian plan to populate Veii with half of the city of Rome designed, to resolve poverty and space issues. Camillus deliberately protracted the project until its abandonment.</p><br>
<h3>Roman and later history</h3><br>
<p>The city was soon assimilated under Roman control and is termed "Roman Veii" as opposed to "Etruscan Veii" by scholarly literature. Under the empire the Romans called the city the Municipium Augustum Veiens. The city never recovered its former wealth or its population after the Roman conquest.</p><br>
<p>The Romans built wealthy villas in the region and Livia had an estate there, according to Suetonius.</p><br>
<p>Veii was eventually abandoned after Roman times, and everything of value or utility was removed by anyone with access to the site. Finally it was filled and smoothed for ploughland and was forgotten until its rediscovery in the 17th century by the antiquarian Raffaello Fabretti.</p><br>
<h3>Ager Veientanus</h3><br>
<p>The territory of a city-state anywhere within the Roman domain was, in Roman legal terminology, an ager. The law made a number of fine distinctions, but by ager it meant primarily ager publicus, "public territory", the land belonging to the state, which in those times was primarily agricultural (ager is "field").</p><br>
<p>The ager Veientanus (i.e. of Veii) covered the entire region between the right bank of the lower Tiber river and the coast; that is all of southern Etruria. The northwest border was probably as far west as the Monti Sabatini and Lake Bracciano in the north.</p><br>
<p>In Etruscan times the ager Veiantanus shared the countryside with the Silva Ciminia, the remnant of an ancient forest, of which the Romans stood in superstitious dread.</p><br>
<p>The ager Veiantanus remained for the most part agrarian until it became evident after World War II that the city of Rome was going to expand into and develop that area as a suburb. Moreover, a new method of ploughing was turning over the soil a metre deep, destroying all surface evidence. John Bryan Ward-Perkins, then Director of the British School at Rome, set into motion the South Etruria Survey (1954–1968), which cataloged all the visible antiquities in the ager Veientanus. It was published in 1968.</p><br>
<p>Nearly 30 years later, in 1997, the Italian government moved to protect a part of that area, creating the Veio Regional Natural Park of 14,984 hectare between the Via Cassia on the west, the Via Flaminia on the east, the Via Campagnanese on the north and the city of Rome on the south. Within the park are the comuni of Campagnano di Roma, Castelnuovo di Porto, Formello, Magliano Romano, Mazzano Romano, Morlupo, Riano, Sacrofano and Municipio XX of the city of Rome.</p><br>
<p>The Sulu Archipelago  is a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean, in the southwestern Philippines. The archipelago forms the northern limit of the Celebes Sea and southern limit of the Sulu Sea. The Sulu Archipelago islands are within the Mindanao island group, consisting of the provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago is not, as is often supposed, the remains of a land bridge between Borneo and the Philippines. Rather, it is the exposed edge of small submarine ridges produced by tectonic tilting of the sea bottom Basilan, Jolo, and other islands in the group are extinct volcanic cones rising from the southernmost ridge. Tawi-Tawi, the southernmost island of the group, has a serpentine basement-complex core with a limestone covering. This island chain is an important migration route for birds.</p><br>
<p>The largest municipalities in the area are on Maimbung and Jolo. The larger island of Palawan to its north, the coastal regions of the westward-extending Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao, and the north-eastern part of the island of Borneo were formerly parts of the thalassocratic Sultanate of Sulu.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago is the home of the indigenous Tausug people; various group of Samal (or Sama) people including the semi-nomadic Badjaw; the land-based Sama; the related Yakan people; and the Jama Mapun people. The Tausug language is spoken widely in the Sulu Archipelago as both first and second languages throughout these islands. The Yakan language is spoken mainly in Basilan Island. Numerous dialects of Sinama are spoken throughout the archipelago, from the Tawi-Tawi Island group, to the Mapun island group (Mapun), to the coast of Mindanao and beyond.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The archipelago is geographically subdivided into several groups, most significantly those around the main islands Basilan, Jolo and Tawi-Tawi. There are, however, other groups containing mostly small islands; not all of these are inhabited:</p><br>
<p>Basilan</p><br>
<p>Pilas</p><br>
<p>Capual</p><br>
<p>Jolo island</p><br>
<p>Pata</p><br>
<p>Tongquil</p><br>
<p>Deatoboato</p><br>
<p>Cap Island</p><br>
<p>Laparan</p><br>
<p>Dog Can</p><br>
<p>Pearl Bank (atoll)</p><br>
<p>Kulasssein</p><br>
<p>Panducan</p><br>
<p>Pangutaran</p><br>
<p>Andulinang</p><br>
<p>Mardanas</p><br>
<p>Omapoy</p><br>
<p>Panguan</p><br>
<p>Sibutu</p><br>
<p>Sitangkai</p><br>
<p>Lapac</p><br>
<p>Lugus (Bulipongpong)</p><br>
<p>Siasi</p><br>
<p>Tapul</p><br>
<p>Bongao</p><br>
<p>Manuk Mankaw</p><br>
<p>Simunul</p><br>
<p>Sanga-Sanga</p><br>
<p>Tawitawi</p><br>
<p>Topaan</p><br>
<p>Mapun (formerly Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi/Cagayan de Sulu)</p><br>
<p>Turtle Islands</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Sulu Archipelago was once part of Majapahit Empire and mentioned in the Old Javanese eulogy of Nagarakretagama by the name "Solot". After that, it became part of the Bruneian Empire before gaining its own independence on 1578.</p><br>
<p>The region then became part of the independent Sultanate of Sulu, founded in 1405. The arrival of Western powers later became a conflict when the Spanish start to impose the rule of Spanish East Indies over the Sulu Archipelago. Spanish military expeditions against the sultanate were launched over the centuries of the colonial Philippines period (1565–1946). The Moro Rebellion (1899–1913) independence movement continued the Islamic Moro conflict, against the United States occupation in areas of the Moro people in the archipelago and southwestern Philippines.</p><br>
<h3>1405–1844: Sulu Sultanate and Spanish East Indies</h3><br>
<p>The Sulu Archipelago was part of the Islamic Sultanate of Sulu, founded in 1405 by Shari’ful Hashem Syed Abu Bak’r. The sultanate also included portions of Borneo, Mindanao, Palawan, and other islands in the region.</p><br>
<p>From the first Spanish encounters with Jolo island, the Spanish–Moro conflict met firm and organised resistance from the Sultanate of Sulu. Miguel López de Legazpi had established a colony in Cebu in May 1565, however the initial focus of the Spanish conquest to establish the Spanish East Indies was northwards. In June 1578 Francisco de Sande, Governor-General of the Spanish East Indies, dispatched captain Esteban Rodríguez de Figueroa and the Jesuit priest Juan del Campo and the coadjutor Gaspar Gómez to Jolo, resulting in a negotiated compromise where the Sulu sultan paid a regular tribute in pearls. The following year, Figueroa was awarded the sole right to colonise Mindanao. In 1587, during a campaign against Borneo launched by Sande, Figueroa attacked and burned down Jolo. The Spaniards left Jolo after a few days.</p><br>
<p>The Joloanos resolved to resist Spanish intrusions. In response to attacks, Joloanos raided Spanish settlements and reducciones. In 1593, the first permanent Roman Catholic mission was established on the Zamboanga Peninsula, and three years later, the Spanish Army launched another attack on Jolo, which was repelled by the army of Rajah Bongsu. In November 1593, the Spanish Empire sent Juan Ronquillo to Tampakan to thwart the slave raiders. The following year, the Spanish Army troops relocated to Caldera Bay (Recodo), Mindanao. In 1598, another expedition was launched against Jolo, but was repelled by the Joloanos. In late 1600, Captain Juan Gallinato with a group of about 200 Spanish soldiers attacked Jolo but were unsuccessful. By 1601, after three months of heavy fighting, the Spanish troops retreated. In 1628, a larger raiding force of about 200 Spanish army officers and 1,600 soldiers was organised to attack Jolo to defeat the Moslem slave raiders and traders, but the Spanish again failed to take Jolo. Again on 17 March 1630, a large Spanish force of 2,500 soldiers attacked Jolo but to no avail. When its commander Lorenzo de Olazo was wounded, the Spaniards retreated.</p><br>
<p>On 4 January 1638, de Corcuera led a naval and military expedition of about 80 ships and 2,000 troops to attack Jolo, but Sultan Wasit put up stiff resistance. However, Sultan Wasit&#39;s kuta army suffered a serious epidemic of tropical disease and he and his chieftains sought refuge in the Dungun area of Tawi-Tawi. The Spanish Army easily occupied Jolo, and a small garrison was left there to control the area. The garrison was withered away by frequent raids launched by Sultan Wasit, and by 1645, this garrison had been wasted away. This was the first time that Jolo had been occupied by the Spaniards for an appreciable length of time. From 1663 to 1718, an interregnum of peace occurred because the Spanish troops were ordered to abandon the Zamboanga Peninsula, and forts south of thatand regroup in Manila to prepare for the impending attack of Koxingawhich never happened.</p><br>
<p>Hostilities resumed in the 18th century, triggered by the 1718 decision by governor Gen Juan Antonio dela Torre Bustamante to reconstruct the fort Real Fuerza de San José in Bagumbayan, Zamboanga. The fort was completed in 1719 was renamed Real Fuerza del Pilar de Zaragosa (Fort Pilar is its popular name today) and inaugurated on 16 April. Three years later in 1722, the Spaniards launched another expedition against Jolo led by Andrés García; this expedition failed. In 1731, General Ignacio Iriberri lead a force of 1000 to Jolo and captured it after a lengthy siege, but the Spaniards again left after a few days. In 1755, a force of 1,900 Spanish soldiers led by the captains Simeón Valdez and Pedro Gastambide was sent to Jolo in revenge for the raids by Sultan Muiz ud-Din, but the Spaniards were defeated. In 1775, after a Moro raid on Zamboanga, Captain Vargas led a punitive expedition against Jolo, but his force was repulsed.</p><br>
<p>In the second half of the 18th century, Great Britain became a new player in the archipelago After occupying Manila from 1762–64, during the Seven Years&#39; War between Spain, Great Britain and other European powers, the British Army withdrew to the south and established trading alliances between the Sulu Sultanate and the British East India Company. Spanish attacks on Jolo were now directed at weakening British trading interests in the south. In 1784, Aguilar conducted a series of unsuccessful assaults against Jolo and in 1796, Spanish admiral José Alava was sent from Madrid with a powerful naval fleet to stop the slave-raiding attacks from the Sulu Sea. The British presence was signalled when in 1798, the British Royal Navy, which had established a base in Sulu, bombarded Fort Pilar in Zamboanga. In 1803, Lord Richard Wellesley, the Governor-General of India, ordered Robert J. Fraquhar to transfer trading and military operations to Balambangan island near Borneo. By 1895, the Great Britain had withdrawn its army and navy from the Sulu Sea.</p><br>
<p>In 1815, the galleon trade across the Pacific Ocean between the Philippines and Mexico ended, since Mexico had declared its independence in 1810, and an extended war of independence was in progress. Most of the other Spanish-ruled areas of the Americas had also rebelled against their colonial masters. In 1821, the Philippine Islands were administered directly from Madrid, rather than via the Viceroy of Mexico, since Mexico and its southern neighbours had won their independence from Spain. The Spanish Empire sought to end the "Moro threat". In 1824, the Marina Sutil, a light and manoeuvrable naval force under Capitan Alonso Morgado was sent to confront the slave raiders in the Sulu Sea.</p><br>
<h3>1844–1898: Spanish occupation</h3><br>
<p>In 1844, Governor General Narciso Claveria led yet another expedition against Jolo and in 1848, Claveria with powerful gunboats Magallanes, El Cano, and Reina de Castilla brought from Europe supervised the attack on the Balangingi stronghold in Tungkil. The raid resulted in the capture of many Sama Balangingi and the exile of many to the tobacco fields of Cagayan Valley. The leader of the Sama, Paglima Taupan, was not captured. With the fall of the Balangingi, a powerful ally of the Sulu Sultanate was decimated, beginning the decline of the sultanate’s maritime sea power. In 1850, Governor General Juan Urbiztondo continued with Claveria&#39;s campaign and annihilated the remaining Balangingi strongholds at Tungkil. A raid on Jolo that year was a failure. On 28 February 1851, Urbiztondo launched another campaign against Jolo, razed the whole town and confiscated 112 pieces of artillery. The Spanish troops later withdrew. Also in 1851 a peace treaty was signed between the Sulu Sultanate and the Spanish, though the terms were understood differently by each party.</p><br>
<p>In 1876, the Spanish launched a campaign to occupy Jolo. Spurred by their need to curb slave raiding, and concerned about other European colonial efforts in the region, the Spanish made a final bid to consolidate their rule in their southern frontier. The British had established trading centres in Jolo by the 19th century and the French were offering to purchase Basilan Island from the Spanish government. On 21 February 1876, the Spaniards assembled the largest contingent against Jolo, consisting of 9,000 soldiers in 11 transports, 11 gunboats, and 11 steamboats. Headed by Admiral Jose Malcampo, they captured Jolo and established a Spanish settlement.</p><br>
<p>Captain Pascual Cervera was appointed to set up a garrison and serve as military governor; he served from March 1876 to December 1876 followed by Jose Paulin (December 1876 – April 1877), Carlos Martinez (Sept 1877 – Feb 1880), Rafael de Rivera (1880–81), Isidro G. Soto (1881–82), Eduardo Bremon, (1882), Julian Parrrado (1882–84), Francisco Castilla (1884–86), Juan Arolas (1886–93), Caesar Mattos (1893), Venancio Hernandez (1893–96), and Luis Huerta (1896–99).</p><br>
<p>The Spaniards were never secured in Jolo, and by 1878 they had fortified the town with a perimeter wall and tower gates, built inner forts called Puerta Blockaus, Puerta España, and Puerta Alfonso XII, and two outer fortifications named Princesa de Asturias and Torre de la Reina when Sultanate of Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty in middle of 19th century, but these areas remained partially ruled by the Spanish as their sovereignty was limited to military stations and garrisons and pockets of civilian settlements. Troops, including a cavalry unit with its own lieutenant commander, were garrisoned within the protective walls. In 1880 Colonel Rafael Gonzales de Rivera, who was appointed by the Governor General, dispatched the 6th Regiment to Siasi and Bongao Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Spaniards stronghold was sporadically attacked. On 22 July 1883, it was reported that three unnamed men had succeeded in penetrating Jolos town plaza and killed three Spaniards. The word “Ajuramentado” was coined by the Spanish colonel Juan Arolas after witnessing several such raids while serving with the Jolo garrison.</p><br>
<h3>1898–1946: American occupation</h3><br>
<p>In 1898, the war between Spain and America broke out. Commodore George Dewey of the US Navy defeated the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay, following which the American army occupied Manila. The United States took possession of the Philippines under international law after the 1898 Treaty of Paris ended the war.</p><br>
<p>The Philippine–American War followed in 1898 for three months, during which the American military fought and defeated the Philippine forces under Emilio Aguinaldo for control of the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>After the Philippine–American War, the Moro Rebellion (1899–1913) independence movement continued the Spanish–Moro conflict, now against the United States occupation of the Philippines. The Sulu Archipelago was considered part of Islamic Moroland by the movement.</p><br>
<h4>World War II</h4><br>
<p>In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States in the Philippines and at Pearl Harbor, and the United States declared war on Japan as part of World War II. Japan conquered the Philippines in 1942, in the Philippines Campaign (1941–42). In 1944 the Allies&#39; Philippines Campaign (1944–45) against the Japanese occupation began with the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Allied forces eventually drove the Japanese from the islands.</p><br>
<h3>1946–present: Philippine Independence</h3><br>
<p>On 4 July 1946, the Philippines became an independent nation. The fortifications of Jolo remained in good state during the American occupation when its walls, gates, and the buildings within it were photographed. Early 20th century photographs of Jolo show a well-ordered town, neatly laid out in a grid of streets and blocks—characteristics of Spanish urbanism applied with a military rigidity. In the postwar years the walls degraded.</p><br>
<p>Jolo suffered major destruction due to bombardment and fire during the military operations against the Moro Islamic independence forces in Jolo in 1973., short stretches of degraded perimeter wall still exist, but are covered by buildings or are partially demolished to less than 1 m in height.</p><br>
<h4>Autonomy</h4><br>
<p>The Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) is the current political entity that the Sulu Archipelago islands are within.</p><br>
<p>Bangsamoro, officially known as the Autonomous Government of Bangsamoro (Filipino: Nagsasariling Pamahalan ng Bangsamoro), is a proposed autonomous political entity within the Philippines. The proposal is part of the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro, a preliminary peace agreement signed between the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and the Philippine government.</p><br>
<p>Lake Saint-Louis is a lake in southwestern Quebec, Canada at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. The St. Lawrence Seaway passes through the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake St. Louis is a widening of the St. Lawrence River in the Hochelaga Archipelago it is also fed by the Ottawa River via the lock in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, the Beauharnois Canal, the Soulanges Canal, the St. Louis River, and the Châteauguay River.</p><br>
<p>The lake is bounded to the north and east by the Island of Montreal, by Beauharnois-Salaberry, Roussillon, and Vaudreuil-Soulanges. The town of Beauharnois with its power-dam and canal lie to the south.</p><br>
<p>The West Island shore is mostly built-up with private houses, but includes some parks and clubs such as the Pointe-Claire Canoe Club, and the Pointe-Claire Yacht Club. Islands in the lake include l&#39;Île-Dorval, and Dowker Island. Lake St. Louis is the second of three fluvial lakes on the St. Lawrence River. Upstream of it is Lake St. Francis, and downstream is Lake Saint Pierre. Its average flow is 8,400 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>Many species of fish are present in the lake, including yellow perch.</p><br>
<p>A small map by Samuel Champlain of 1611 names the lake. The same year, Champlain reported that a young man named Louys was drowned in what is now known as the Lachine Rapids, and in 1870 Charles-Honoré Laverdière stated that the rapids, and later the lake, were named in honour of the drowned man. A 1656 Jesuit account describes a crossing «Lac Saint Louys».</p><br>
<p>In 2014 there was a report of fecal coliform flowing into the lake from a Beaconsfield creek, and of PCBs flowing into it from a Pointe-Claire industrial site.</p><br>
<p>Berkeley Plantation, one of the first slave rearing estates in America, comprises about 1,000 acre on the banks of the James River on State Route 5 in Charles City County, Virginia. Berkeley Plantation was originally called Berkeley Hundred and named after the Berkeley Company of England. Benjamin Harrison IV built on the estate what is believed to be the oldest three-story brick mansion in Virginia and is the ancestral home to two Presidents of the United States: William Henry Harrison, his grandson, and Benjamin Harrison his great-great-grandson. It is now a museum property, open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Among the many American "firsts" that occurred at Berkeley Plantation are:</p><br>
<p>The first official Thanksgiving: 4 December 1619</p><br>
<p>First time Army bugle call "Taps" played: July 1862, by bugler Oliver W. Norton; the melody was written at Harrisons Landing, the plantations old wharf, by Norton and then General Daniel Butterfield.</p><br>
<p>Bourbon whiskey was originally distilled at Berkeley Plantation in 1620.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On December 4, 1619, a group of 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred, about 8,000 acre on the north bank of the James River near Herring Creek in an area then known as Charles Cittie (sic). It was named for one of the original founders, Richard Berkeley, a member of the Berkeley family of Gloucestershire, England. It was about 20 miles upstream from Jamestown, where the first permanent settlement of the Colony of Virginia was established on May 14, 1607.</p><br>
<p>The group&#39;s London Company charter required that the day of arrival be observed as a "day of thanksgiving" to God. On that first day, Captain John Woodlief held a service pursuant to the charter which specified, "Wee ordaine that the day of our ships arrival at the place assigned for plantacon in the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually keept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God.".</p><br>
<p>During the Indian Massacre of 1622, nine of the settlers at Berkeley Hundred were killed, as well as about a third of the entire population of the Virginia Colony. The Berkeley Hundred site and other outlying locations were abandoned as the colonists withdrew to Jamestown and other more secure points</p><br>
<p>After several years, the site became Berkeley Plantation and was long the traditional home of the Harrison family, one of the First Families of Virginia. In 1634, it became part of the first eight shires of Virginia, as Charles City County, one of the oldest in the United States, and is located along Virginia State Route 5, which runs parallel to the river&#39;s northern borders past sites of many of the James River Plantations between the colonial capital city of Williamsburg (now the site of Colonial Williamsburg) and the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia at Richmond.</p><br>
<p>Using bricks fired on the Berkeley plantation, Benjamin Harrison IV built a Georgian-style three-story brick mansion on a hill overlooking the James River in 1726. Berkeley would later earn a distinction shared only with Peacefield in Quincy, Massachusetts as the ancestral home for two United States Presidents. Harrison&#39;s son, Benjamin Harrison V, a signer of the American Declaration of Independence and a Governor of Virginia, was born at Berkeley Plantation, as was his son William Henry Harrison, a war hero in the Battle of Tippecanoe, governor of Indiana Territory, and ninth President of the United States.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Union troops occupied Berkeley Plantation, and President Abraham Lincoln twice visited there in the summer of 1862 to confer with Gen. George B. McClellan. The Harrisons were not able to regain possession of the plantation after the war, and it passed through several owners&#39; hands and fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>Berkeley is still a working farm; corn, soybeans, wheat, tomatoes, and other vegetables are grown here.</p><br>
<p>There is also a small family cemetery on the property. Among those buried here are Benjamin Harrison, Grace Jamieson, and Malcolm Jamieson.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>In 1907, Berkeley Plantation was bought by John Jamieson, a Scotsman who had served as a drummer boy in the Union army during the Civil War. His son, Malcolm Jamieson (who bought out the interests of other heirs after Johns death), and Malcolms wife, Grace, restored the manor, which had been in deteriorating condition. Today the house attracts visitors from the United States and other parts of the world.</p><br>
<p>The architecture is original, and the house has been filled with antique furniture and furnishings that date from the period when it was built. The grounds, too, have been restored, and cuttings from the boxwood gardens are available as living souvenirs for its visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Exterior</h2><br>
<p>The main house is the centerpiece of ten acres of formal gardens and parterres. The house is surrounded by boxwood hedges forming allées. Large pillars with decorative spires support large hinged gates.</p><br>
<p>The house is constructed of red brick with thin mortar joints. The two story building&#39;s main entrance is in the center of the house, with two symmetrical windows on either side and a central window directly above the door. These windows are double sashed with 12 panes per sash. An entablature with dentil moldings support the gabled roof, which is pierced by three dormer windows and two large brick chimneys.</p><br>
<p>The American Falls is the second-largest of the three waterfalls that together are known as Niagara Falls on the Niagara River along the Canada&ndash;USA border. Unlike the much larger Horseshoe Falls, of which two-thirds is located in Ontario, Canada and one-third in the USA state of New York, the American Falls is entirely within the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The falls receive approximately 10% of the flow from Niagara River, with most of the rest going over Horseshoe Falls, from which it is separated by Goat Island. It has a straight line crest width of about 830 ft. If measured along the jagged lip of the falls, the crest is about 950 ft long (but see coastline paradox). The torrent of water passing over the crest of the falls is about 2 ft deep.</p><br>
<p>The height of the American Falls ranges between 70 to 110 ft. This measurement is taken from the top of the Falls to top of the rock pile (talus). The height of the Falls from the top of the Falls to the river is 188 ft.</p><br>
<p>The falls are viewable from a steep angle on the American side, where it is possible to approach to within several meters of the edge of the falls. One can view the falls from the bank of the river, as well as on Goat Island and Luna Island, which are accessible by a pedestrian bridge that crosses the rapids of the Niagara River upstream from the falls. The falls are viewable head-on from the Canadian side in Niagara Falls, Ontario.</p><br>
<p>The ledge of the American Falls is shaped in a modified "W" form, caused by numerous rock falls over the past 150 years which have resulted in the huge mound of rock at its base. The most notable recent rockfall occurred in 1954 with the collapse of Prospect Point to the north.</p><br>
<p>To survey the rockfall and determine how to prevent the falls from becoming a series of rapids, the USA Army Corps of Engineers completely blocked the flow of water over the American Falls from June to November 1969. Results conflict as to whether tourist attendance that season was higher or lower than normal. Attendance increases were likely due to the news that the cataract was dried off; decreases in tourists could be attributed to the fact people thought both cataracts (the American and Horseshoe Falls) were dewatered that year. By December 1969, water was flowing over the American Falls again. In the mid‑1970s, it was decided not to make alterations to the rockwall and remove the talus, citing the trend to allow nature to take its course.</p><br>
<p>The Cave of the Patriarchs, also called the Cave of Machpelah  and known by Muslims as the Sanctuary of Abraham or the Ibrahimi Mosque , is a series of subterranean chambers located in the heart of the old city of Hebron  in the Hebron Hills. According to tradition that has been associated with the Holy Books Torah, Bible and Quran, the cave and adjoining field were purchased by Abraham as a burial plot.</p><br>
<p>The site of the Cave of the Patriarchs is located beneath a Saladin-era mosque, which had been converted from a large rectangular Herodian-era Judean structure.</p><br>
<p>Dating back over 2,000 years, the monumental Herodian compound is believed to be the oldest continuously used intact prayer structure in the world, and is the oldest major building in the world that still fulfills its original function. The Hebrew name of the complex reflects the very old tradition of the double tombs of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Leah, considered the Patriarchs and Matriarchs of the Jewish people. The only Jewish matriarch missing is Rachel, described in one biblical tradition as having been buried near Bethlehem.</p><br>
<p>The Arabic name of the complex reflects the prominence given to Abraham, revered by Muslims as a Quranic prophet and patriarch through Ishmael. Outside biblical and Quranic sources there are a number of legends and traditions associated with the cave. In Acts 7:16 of the Christian Bible the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem (Neapolis; Arabic: Nablus).</p><br>
<h2>Biblical origin</h2><br>
<p>According to the Book of, Sarah, the wife of Abraham, "died in Kiryat-arba; the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan". Abraham the Hebrew (Avraham Ha-Ivri) was tending to business elsewhere when she died, at the age of 127 years, and he "came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep for her." (Genesis 23:2) After a while, he stood up and spoke to the "sons of Heth" and requested they give him a possession as a "burying place", and they offered him his "choice" of their sepulchres. And then in verse 7 he again "stood up" to speak to them. Abraham then requested that Ephron the Hittite, the son of Zohar, give him the cave of Machpelah, in the end of his field, "for as much money as it is worth". (verse 9) After Ephron confirmed that he would give the cave, in verse 11, Abraham further requested that he give him the field for money, in verse 13. Ephron agreed and named a price.</p><br>
<p>Genesis 23:16 ¶ And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant. And the field of Ephron, which was in Machpelah, which was before Mamre, the field, and the cave which was therein, and all the trees that were in the field, that were in all the borders round about, were made sure Unto Abraham for a possession in the presence of the children of Heth, before all that went in at the gate of his city.</p><br>
<p>The burial of Sarah is the first account of a burial in the Bible, and this is the first commercial transaction mentioned. The next burial in the cave of Machpelah is that of Abraham, who lived "an hundred threescore and fifteen years" – 100 years unto the birth of Isaac, and threescore (60) more years unto the births of Esau and Jacob, with whom he spent his last 15 years. The title deed to the cave was part of the property of Abraham that passed to his son Isaac in.</p><br>
<p>Genesis 25:9 And his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah, in the field of Ephron the son of Zohar the Hittite, which is before Mamre; The field which Abraham purchased of the sons of Heth: there was Abraham buried, and Sarah his wife.</p><br>
<p>Isaac was 180 years old when he died, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried him. As noted above, Isaac was 60 when they were born, so they were 120 years old here, which is 10 years before Jacob, at the age of 130, stood before Pharaoh in. Jacob died later at the age of 147 years. There is no mention of how or when Isaacs wife Rebecca died, but she is included in the list of those that had been buried in Machpelah in Jacobs final words to the children of Israel:</p><br>
<p>Genesis 49:29 And he charged them, and said unto them, I am to be gathered unto my people: bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite, In the cave that is in the field of Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which Abraham bought with the field of Ephron the Hittite for a possession of a buryingplace. There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried Leah. The purchase of the field and of the cave that is therein was from the children of Heth. And when Jacob had made an end of commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed, and yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people.</p><br>
<p>In the final chapter of Genesis, Joseph had his physicians embalm his father, before they removed him from Egypt to be buried in the cave of the field of Machpelah. When Joseph died in the last verse, he was also embalmed. He was buried much later in Shechem after the children of Israel came into the promised land.</p><br>
<p>In Acts 7:16, Stephen claims that the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Hellenistic Judaism</h3><br>
<p>To commemorate the site for his Jewish subjects,</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine Christian Period</h3><br>
<p>Until the era of the Byzantine Empire, the interior of the enclosure remained exposed to the sky. Under Byzantine rule, a simple basilica was constructed at the southeastern end and the enclosure was roofed everywhere except at the centre. The Piacenza Pilgrim (c.570) noted in his pilgrimage account that Jews and Christians shared possession of the site.</p><br>
<h3>Arab period</h3><br>
<p>In 614, the Sasanid Persians conquered the area and destroyed the castle, leaving only ruins; but in 637, the area came under the control of the Arab Muslims and the building was reconstructed as a roofed mosque.</p><br>
<p>During the 10th century, an entrance was pierced through the north-eastern wall, some way above the external ground level, and steps from the north and from the east were built up to it (one set of steps for entering, the other for leaving). A building known as the qalah (قلعة i.e. castle) was also constructed near the middle of the southwestern side. Its purpose is unknown but one historic account claims that it marked the spot where Joseph was buried (see Josephs tomb), the area having been excavated by a Muslim caliph, under the influence of a local tradition regarding Josephs tomb. Some archaeologists believe that the original entrance to Herods structure was in the location of the qal&#39;ah and that the northeastern entrance was created so that the kalah could be built by the former entrance.</p><br>
<h3>Crusader period</h3><br>
<p>In 1100, after the area was captured by the Crusaders, the enclosure once again became a church and Muslims were no longer permitted to enter. During this period, the area was given a new gabled roof, clerestory windows and vaulting.</p><br>
<p>In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem, according to Ali of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given in Ibn al Athir&#39;s Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver." The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in the southern Levant, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.</p><br>
<p>Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote, "On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything."</p><br>
<p>In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the city, which he called by its Frankish name, St.Abram de Bron. He reported:</p><br>
<h3>Ayyubid period</h3><br>
<p>In 1188 Saladin conquered the area, reconverting the enclosure to a mosque but allowing Christians to continue worshipping there. Saladin also added a minaret at each corner—two of which still survive—and the minbar. Samuel ben Samson visited the cave in 1210; he says that the visitor must descend by twenty-four steps in a passageway so narrow that the rock touches him on either hand.</p><br>
<h3>Mamluk period</h3><br>
<p>Between 1318 and 1320, the Mamluk, the governor of Gaza, a province that included Hebron, Sanjar al-Jawli ordered the construction of the Amir Jawli Mosque within the Haram enclosure to enlarge the prayer space and accommodate worshipers. In the late 14th century, under the Mamluks, two additional entrances were pierced into the western end of the south western side and the kalah was extended upwards to the level of the rest of the enclosure. A cenotaph in memory of Joseph was created in the upper level of the kalah so that visitors to the enclosure would not need to leave and travel round the outside just to pay respects. The Mamluks also built the northwestern staircase and the six cenotaphs (for Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob, Leah, Abraham, and Sarah, respectively), distributed evenly throughout the enclosure. The Mamluks forbade Jews from entering the site, allowing them only as close as the fifth step on a staircase at the southeast, but after some time this was increased to the seventh step.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity. Ali Bey, one of the few foreigners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham.&#39;</p><br>
<h3>Israeli control</h3><br>
<p>After the Six-Day War in 1967, in which Israel gained control of Hebron, the first Jew who entered the Cave of Machpelah for about 700 years, was the Chief Rabbi of the Israel Defense Forces, Major general Rabbi Shlomo Goren. "About 700 years ago, the Muslim Mamelukes conquered Hebron, declared the structure a mosque and forbade entry to Jews, who were not allowed past the seventh step on a staircase outside the building." Following the 1929 Hebron massacre, this restricted access was even more restricted by British Mandate authorities. After Israeli statehood in 1948 and the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank, no Jews were allowed anywhere in the territory. Following the Israeli occupation of Hebron in the Six-Day War, the area came under Jewish authority for the first time in 2,000 years and the 700-year-long restriction limiting Jews to the seventh step outside was lifted. Jews immediately began re-settling in the city after the Six-Day War. The first subsequent Jewish wedding ceremony took place on August 7, 1968.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, a special arrangement was made to accommodate Jewish services on the Jewish New Year and Day of Atonement. This led to a hand-grenade being thrown on the stairway leading to the tomb on October 9; 47 Israelis were injured, 8 seriously. On Yom Kippur eve, October 3, 1976, an Arab mob destroyed several Torah scrolls and prayer books at the tomb. In May 1980, an attack on Jewish worshippers returning from prayers at the tomb left 6 dead and 17 wounded.</p><br>
<p>Tensions would later increase as the Israeli government signed the Oslo Accords in September 1993, which gave limited autonomy to the PLO in the West Bank city of Jericho and the Gaza Strip. The city of Hebron and the rest of the major Palestinian population centers in the West Bank were not included in the initial agreement. The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre committed by Baruch Goldstein, an Israeli-American settler in February 1994, left 29 Palestinian Muslims dead and scores injured. The resulting riots resulted in a further 35 deaths.</p><br>
<p>The increased sensitivity of the site meant that in 1996 the Wye River Accords, part of the Arab-Israeli peace process, included a temporary status agreement for the site restricting access for both Jews and Muslims. As part of this agreement, the waqf (Islamic charitable trust) controls 81% of the building. This includes the whole of the southeastern section, which lies above the only known entrance to the caves and possibly over the entirety of the caves themselves. In consequence, Jews are not permitted to visit the Cenotaphs of Isaac or Rebecca, which lie entirely within the southeastern section, except for 10 days a year that hold special significance in Judaism. One of these days is the Shabbat Chayei Sarah, when the Torah portion concerning the death of Sarah and the purchase by Abraham of the land in which the caves are situated, is read.</p><br>
<p>The Israeli authorities do not allow Jewish religious authorities the right to maintain the site and allow only the waqf to do so. Tourists are permitted to enter the site. Security at the site has increased since the Intifada; the Israel Defense Forces surround the site with soldiers and control access to the shrines. Israeli forces also subject locals to checkpoints and bar all non-Jews from stepping foot on some of the main roads to the complex and ban Palestinian vehicles from many of the roads in the area.</p><br>
<p>On February 21, 2010, Israel announced that it would include the site in a national heritage site protection and rehabilitation plan. The announcement sparked protests from the UN, Arab governments and the United States. A subsequent UNESCO vote in October aimed to affirm that the "al-Haram al-Ibrahimi/Tomb of the Patriarchs in al-Khalil/Hebron"</p><br>
<p>was "an integral part of the occupied Palestinian Territories."</p><br>
<p>Israeli authorities have placed restrictions on calling the faithful to prayer by the muezzin of the Ibrahimi mosque. The order was enforced 61 times in October 2014, and 52 times in December of that year. This was following numerous complaints by the Jewish residents who claim that the calls violate legal decibel limits. In December 2009 Israeli authorities banned Jewish music played at the cave following similar complaints from the Arab residents.</p><br>
<p>On 6 November 2015, 2 Israelis were shot and injured in a Palestinian shooting attack at the site.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<h3>The building</h3><br>
<p>The rectangular stone enclosure lies on a northwest-southeast axis, and is divided into two sections by a wall running between the northwestern three fifths, and the southeastern two fifths. The northwestern section is roofed on three sides, the central area and north eastern side being open to the sky; the southeastern section is fully roofed, the roof being supported by four columns evenly distributed through the section.</p><br>
<p>Nearly the entire building itself was built by King Herod and it remains the only Herodian building surviving today virtually intact.</p><br>
<p>In the northwestern section are four cenotaphs, each housed in a separate octagonal room, those dedicated to Jacob and Leah being on the northwest, and those to Abraham and Sarah on the southeast. A corridor runs between the cenotaphs on the northwest, and another between those on the southeast. A third corridor runs the length of the southwestern side, through which access to the cenotaphs, and to the southeastern section, can be gained. An entrance to the enclosure exists on the southwestern side, entering this third corridor; a mosque outside this entrance must be passed through to gain access.</p><br>
<p>At the center of the northeastern side, there is another entrance, which enters the roofed area on the southeastern side of the northwestern section and through which access can also be gained to the southeastern (fully roofed) section. This entrance is approached on the outside by a corridor which leads from a long staircase running most of the length of the northwestern side. The southeastern section, which functions primarily as a mosque, contains two cenotaphs, symmetrically placed, near the center, dedicated to Isaac and Rebecca. Between them, in the southeastern wall, is a mihrab. The cenotaphs have a distinctive red and white horizontal striped pattern to their stonework but are usually covered by decorative cloth.</p><br>
<p>Under the present arrangements, Jews are restricted to entering by the southwestern side, and limited to the southwestern corridor and the corridors that run between the cenotaphs, while Muslims may enter only by the northeastern side but are allowed free rein of the remainder of the enclosure.</p><br>
<h3>The caves</h3><br>
<p>The caves under the enclosure are not themselves generally accessible; the waqf have historically prevented access to the actual tombs out of respect for the dead. Only two entrances are known to exist, the most visible of which is located to the immediate southeast of Abraham&#39;s cenotaph on the inside of the southeastern section. This entrance is a narrow shaft covered by a decorative grate, which itself is covered by an elaborate dome. The other entrance is located to the southeast, near the mihrab, and is sealed by a large stone, and usually covered by prayer mats; this is very close to the location of the seventh step on the outside of the enclosure, beyond which the Mamelukes forbade Jews from approaching.</p><br>
<p>When the enclosure was controlled by crusaders, access was occasionally possible. One account, by Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela dating from 1163 CE, states that after passing through an iron door, and descending, the caves would be encountered. According to Benjamin of Tudela, there was a sequence of three caves, the first two of which were empty; in the third cave were six tombs, arranged to be opposite to one another.</p><br>
<p>These caves had been rediscovered only in 1119 CE by a monk named Arnoul, after an unnamed monk at prayer "noticed a draught" in the area near the present location of the mihrab and, with other "brethren", removed the flagstones and found a room lined with Herodian masonry. Arnoul, still searching for the source of the draught, hammered on the cave walls until he heard a hollow sound, pulled down the masonry in that area, and discovered a narrow passage. The narrow passage, which subsequently became known as the serdab (Arabic for passage), was similarly lined with masonry, but partly blocked up. Having unblocked the passage, Arnoul discovered a large round room with plastered walls. In the floor of the room, he found a square stone slightly different from the others and, upon removing it, found the first of the caves. The caves were filled with dust. After removing the dust, Arnoul found bones; believing the bones to be those of the biblical Patriarchs, Arnoul washed them in wine and stacked them neatly. Arnoul carved inscriptions on the cave walls describing whose bones he believed them to be.This passage to the caves was sealed at some time after Saladin had recaptured the area, though the roof of the circular room was pierced, and a decorative grate was placed over it. In 1967, after the Six-Day War, the area fell into the hands of the Israel Defense Forces, and Moshe Dayan, the Defence Minister, who was an amateur archaeologist, attempted to regain access to the tombs. Ignorant of the serdab entrance, Dayan concentrated his attention on the shaft visible below the decorative grate and had the idea of sending someone thin enough to fit through the shaft and down into the chamber below. Dayan eventually found a slim 12-year-old girl named Michal to assist and sent her into the chamber with a camera.</p><br>
<p>Michal explored the round chamber, but failed to find the square stone in the floor that led to the caves. Michal did, however, explore the passage and find steps leading up to the surface, though the exit was blocked by a large stone (this is the entrance near the mihrab). According to the report of her findings, which Michal gave to Dayan after having been lifted back through the shaft, there are 16 steps leading down into the passage, which is 1 cubit wide, 17.37 m and 1 m high. In the round chamber, which is 12 m below the entrance to the shaft, there are three stone slabs, the middle of which contains a partial inscription of Sura 2, verse 255, from the Quran, the famous Ayatul Kursi, Verse of the Throne.</p><br>
<p>In 1981 Seev Jevin, the former director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, entered the passage after a group of Jewish settlers from Hebron had entered the chamber via the entrance near the mihrab and discovered the square stone in the round chamber that concealed the cave entrance. The reports state that after entering the first cave, which seemed to Jevin to be empty, he found a passage leading to a second oval chamber, smaller than the first, which contained shards of pottery and a wine jug.</p><br>
<h2>Legends and traditions</h2><br>
<p>According to Jewish traditions found in the Hebrew Bible which are also accepted by Muslims, entombed within the Cave of the Patriarchs are the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as well as three matriarchs, Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah.</p><br>
<h3>Judaism</h3><br>
<p>In Judaism, the Tomb of the Patriarchs is the second most sacred site in the world, after the Temple Mount. The Book of Genesis relates that Abraham specifically purchased the land as a burial plot from Ephron the Hittite, making it one of two purchases by Abraham of real estate in the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land. According to Genesis, three biblical couples are buried there:</p><br>
<p>Abraham and Sarah</p><br>
<p>Isaac and Rebekah</p><br>
<p>Jacob and Leah (;; )</p><br>
<p>Jacob&#39;s other wife, Rachel, was buried "in the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem."</p><br>
<p>There is a Jewish tradition, that besides the three biblical couples mentioned above, that Adam and Eve were buried there also,(Zohar, Ruth 96), supported by the simple wording of Gen. 23:2, which refers to "Kiryat Arba... Hevron." Arba means four. Rashi to Gen. 23:2 lists the four couples chronologically, starting with Adam and Eve.</p><br>
<p>Another Jewish tradition tells that when Jacob was brought to be buried in the cave, Esau prevented the burial claiming he had the right to be buried in the cave; after some negotiation Naphtali was sent to Egypt to retrieve the document stating Esau sold his part in the cave to Jacob. As this was going on Hushim, the son of Dan who was hard of hearing, did not understand what was going on, and why his grandfather was not being buried, so he asked for an explanation; after being given one he became angry and said: "Is my grandfather to lie there in contempt until Naphtali returns from the land of Egypt?" He then took a club and killed Esau, and Esaus head rolled into the cave. This means that the head of Esau is also buried in the cave. Some Jewish sources record the selling of Esaus right to be buried in the cave – according to a commentary on the "Book of Exodus", Jacob gave all his possessions to acquire a tomb in the Cave of the Patriarchs. He put a large pile of gold and silver before Esau and asked, “My brother, do you prefer your portion of this cave, or all this gold and silver?” Esau&#39;s selling to Jacob his right to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs is also recorded in Sefer HaYashar.</p><br>
<p>An early Jewish text, the Genesis Rabba, states that this site is one of three that enemies of Judaism cannot taunt the Jews by saying "you have stolen them," as it was purchased "for its full price" by Abraham.</p><br>
<p>According to the Midrash, the Patriarchs were buried in the cave because the cave is the threshold to the Garden of Eden. The Patriarchs are said not to be dead but "sleeping". They rise to beg mercy for their children throughout the generations. According to the Zohar, this tomb is the gateway through which souls enter into Gan Eden, heaven.</p><br>
<p>There are Hebrew prayers of supplication for marriage on the walls of the Sarah cenotaph.</p><br>
<h3>Islam</h3><br>
<p>The enclosure is known to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque, as Abraham is a revered prophet of Islam who, according to the Quran, built a sacred house or sanctuary - the exact location is not known. After the conquest of the city by Umar, this holy place was "simply taken over from the Jewish tradition" by the new rulers; the Herodian enclosure was converted into a mosque and placed under the control of a waqf. The waqf continues to maintain most of the site, though the Israeli military controls access to the site.</p><br>
<p>According to some Islamic sources it is also the tomb of Joseph. Though the Bible has Joseph buried in Shechem (the present-day Palestinian city of Nablus), Jewish aggadic tradition conserved the idea that he wished to be interred at Hebron, and the Islamic version may reflect this. The Jewish apocryphal book, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, also states that this is the burial place of Jacob&#39;s twelve sons.</p><br>
<h3>Christianity</h3><br>
<p>The book of, in the New Testament, relates a tradition that Jacob and his sons were buried in Shechem. According to New Testament commentator Albert Barnes, this belief was supported by fourth-century theologian and historian Jerome. The book of relates the burial site of Joseph in similar terms.</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Falls, also known as Canadian Falls, is the largest of the three waterfalls which collectively form Niagara Falls on the Niagara River along the Canada-US Border. Approximately 90% of the Niagara River, after diversions for hydropower generation, flows over Horseshoe Falls. The remaining 10% flows over American Falls and Bridal Veil falls. It is located between Terrapin Point on Goat Island in the US state of New York, and Table Rock in the Canadian province of Ontario.</p><br>
<h2>International border</h2><br>
<p>When the boundary line between the United States and Canada was determined in 1819, based on the Treaty of Ghent, the northeastern end of the Horseshoe Falls was in New York, United States, flowing around the Terrapin Rocks, which were once connected to Goat Island by a series of bridges. In 1955, the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s the United States Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point. Altogether, 400 ft of the Horseshoe Falls was eliminated. Due to erosion, the falls will continue to move in relation to the boundary line in the future.</p><br>
<p>The official national maps for both Canada and the United States indicate that a small portion of the Horseshoe Falls is located within the United States.</p><br>
<p>The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel  is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a relatively small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall, known also in its entirety as the "Western Wall". The wall was originally erected as part of the expansion of the Second Jewish Temple begun by Herod the Great, which resulted in the encasement of the natural, steep hill known to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount, in a large rectangular structure topped by a huge flat platform, thus creating more space for the Temple itself and its auxiliary buildings.</p><br>
<p>The Western Wall is considered holy due to its connection to the Temple Mount. Because of the Temple Mount entry restrictions, the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray, though it is not the holiest site in the Jewish faith, which lies behind it. The original, natural and irregular-shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever-larger Temple compound to be built at its top. This process was finalised by Herod, who enclosed the Mount with an almost rectangular set of retaining walls, built to support extensive substructures and earth fills needed to give the natural hill a geometrically regular shape. On top of this box-like structure Herod built a vast paved esplanade which surrounded the Temple. Of the four retaining walls, the western one is considered to be closest to the former Temple, which makes it the most sacred site recognised by Judaism outside the former Temple Mount esplanade. Just over half the wall&#39;s total height, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period, and is commonly believed to have been built around 19 BCE by Herod the Great, although recent excavations indicate that the work was not finished by the time Herod died in 4 BCE. The very large stone blocks of the lower courses are Herodian, the courses of medium-sized stones above them were added during the Umayyad era, while the small stones of the uppermost courses are of more recent date, especially from the Ottoman period.</p><br>
<p>The term Western Wall and its variations are mostly used in a narrow sense for the section traditionally used by Jews for prayer, and it has also been called the "Wailing Wall", referring to the practice of Jews weeping at the site over the destruction of the Temples. During the period of Christian Roman rule over Jerusalem (ca. 324–638), Jews were completely barred from Jerusalem except to attend Tisha be-Av, the day of national mourning for the Temples, and on this day the Jews would weep at their holy places. The term "Wailing Wall" was thus almost exclusively used by Christians, and was revived in the period of non-Jewish control between the establishment of British Rule in 1920 and the Six-Day War in 1967. The term "Wailing Wall" is not used by Jews, and increasingly not by many others who consider it derogatory.</p><br>
<p>In a broader sense, "Western Wall" can refer to the entire 488-metre-long (1,601 ft.) retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. The classic portion now faces a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount, while the rest of the wall is concealed behind structures in the Muslim Quarter, with the small exception of a 25 ft (8 m) section, the so-called Little Western Wall. The segment of the Western retaining wall traditionally used for Jewish liturgy, known as the "Western Wall", derives its particular importance to it having never been fully obscured by medieval buildings, and displaying much more of the original Herodian stonework than the "Little Western Wall". In religious terms, the "Little Western Wall" is presumed to be even closer to the Holy of Holies and thus to the "presence of God" (Shechina), and the underground Warren&#39;s Gate, which has been out of reach since the 12th century, even more so.</p><br>
<p>Whilst the wall was considered Muslim property as an integral part of the Haram esh-Sharif and waqf property of the Moroccan Quarter, a right of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage existed as part of the Status Quo.</p><br>
<p>The earliest source mentioning this specific site as a place of worship is from the 16th century. The previous sites used by Jews for mourning the destruction of the Temple, during periods when access to the city was prohibited to them, lay to the east, on the Mount of Olives and in the Kidron Valley below it. From the mid-19th century onwards, attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews, but none was successful. With the rise of the Zionist movement in the early 20th century, the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities, the latter being worried that the wall could be used to further Jewish claims to the Temple Mount and thus Jerusalem. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, with a particularly deadly riot in 1929 in which 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. Under Jordanian control Jews were completely expelled from the Old City including the Jewish quarter, and Jews were barred from entering the Old City for 19 years, effectively banning Jewish prayer at the site of the Western Wall. This period ended on June 10, 1967, when Israel gained control of the site following the Six-Day War. Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Early Jewish texts referred to a "western wall of the Temple", but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to the outer, retaining wall called today "the Western Wall", or to the western wall of the actual Temple. The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term "ha-kotel ha-ma&#39;aravi", "the Western Wall", as referring to the wall visible today, was by the 11th-century poet Ahimaaz ben Paltiel. The name "Wailing Wall", and descriptions such as "wailing place", appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century. The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German. This term itself was a translation of the Arabic el-Mabka, or "Place of Weeping", the traditional Arabic term for the wall. This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn and bemoan the destruction of the Temple.</p><br>
<p>At some time in the 19th century, the Arabs began referring to the wall as the al-Buraq Wall. This was based on the tradition that inside the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed, al-Buraq. The tradition on which this is based only states that the Prophet, or the angel Jibrail (Gabriel), tethered the steed at the gate of the mosque, meaning: at the gate of the Temple Mount. The location of the entry gate identified as the one used by Muhammad varied throughout the centuries, from the eastern and southern walls, to the southwest corner, and finally at the western wall, and specifically at Barclays Gate immediately adjacent to the "Wailing Place" of the Jews. Israeli archaeologist Meir Ben-Dov concluded that the Muslim association with Western Wall began in the late nineteenth century in response to renewed Jewish identification with the site.</p><br>
<h2>Location and dimensions</h2><br>
<p>The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187 ft exposed section of ancient wall situated on the western flank of the Temple Mount. This section faces a large plaza and is set aside for prayer. In its entirety, however, the above-ground portion of the Western Wall stretches for 1,600 ft, most of which is hidden behind residential structures built along its length. Other revealed sections include the southern part of the Wall which measures approximately 80 m and another much shorter section known as the Little Western Wall which is located close to the Iron Gate. The wall functions as a retaining wall, supporting and enclosing the ample substructures built by Herod the Great around 19 BCE. Herod&#39;s project was to create an artificial extension to the small quasi-natural plateau on which the First and Second Temples stood, transforming it into the almost rectangular, wide expanse of the Temple Mount visible today.</p><br>
<p>At the Western Wall Plaza, the total height of the Wall from its foundation is estimated at 105 ft, with the exposed section standing approximately 62 ft high. The Wall consists of 45 stone courses, 28 of them above ground and 17 underground. The first seven visible layers are from the Herodian period. This section of wall is built from enormous meleke limestone blocks, possibly quarried at either Zedekiahs Cave situated under the Muslim Quarter of the Old City or at Ramat Shlomo 4 km northwest of the Old City. Most of them weigh between 2 and each, but others weigh even more, with one extraordinary stone located slightly north of Wilsons Arch measuring 13 m and weighing approximately 517 tonnes (570 short tons). Each of these ashlars is framed by fine-chiseled borders. The margins themselves measure between 5 and wide, with their depth measuring 1.5 cm. In the Herodian period, the upper 10 m of wall were 1 m thick and served as the outer wall of the double colonnade of the Temple platform. This upper section was decorated with pilasters, the remainder of which were destroyed when the Byzantines reconquered Jerusalem from the Persians in 628.</p><br>
<p>The next four courses, consisting of smaller plainly dressed stones, date from the Umayyad period (Muslim, 8th century). Above that are 16–17 courses of small stones from the Mamluk period (Muslim, 13–16th century) and later.</p><br>
<h2>Accessibility</h2><br>
<h3>People with disabilities</h3><br>
<p>The plaza and Wall are accessible to wheelchairs and people with mobility difficulties via either the Dung Gate or Jaffa Gate. Access directly from the Jewish Quarter of the Old City is via "a considerable number of steep steps". Access for cars is very restricted, "and parking is a nightmare" so disabled visitors are advised to arrive by taxi or public transportation. Guide dogs are permitted.</p><br>
<h3>Transgender individuals</h3><br>
<p>In January 2015 a transgender Jewish woman, Kay Long, was denied access to the Wall, first by the womens section and then by the mens section. Longs presence was prevented by "modesty police" at women’s section who are not associated with the rabbi of the Western Wall or the site administration. They are a group of female volunteers who guard the entrance to the women’s section preventing entry to visitors who are not dressed to their idea of Orthodox modesty standards for women. The director of Jerusalem’s Open House, a community center for the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community, noted that Long’s experience was not unique. "Gender separation at the Western Wall is harmful for transgender people. This is not the first story that we know of with transgender religious people that wanted to go to the Western Wall and pray and couldn’t," said Elinor Sidi, who expects that the battle for access to the Western Wall for the LGBTQ community will be a long and difficult one. It was later asserted that Kay Long would have been permitted in the womens section except for her clothing. "It was not an issue of her gender, but the way she was dressed."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction – 19 BCE</h3><br>
<p>According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomons Temple was built atop what is known as the Temple Mount in the 10th century BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and the Second Temple completed and dedicated in 516 BCE. Around 19 BCE Herod the Great began a massive expansion project on the Temple Mount. In addition to fully rebuilding and enlarging the Temple, he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood, doubling it in size. Todays Western Wall formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform. In 2011, Israeli archaeologists announced the surprising discovery of Roman coins minted well after Herods death, found under the foundation stones of the wall. The excavators came upon the coins inside a ritual bath that predates Herods building project, which was filled in to create an even base for the wall and was located under its southern section. This seems to indicate that Herod did not finish building the entire wall by the time of his death in 4 BCE. The find confirms the description by historian Josephus Flavius, which states that construction was finished only during the reign of King Agrippa II, Herod’s great-grandson. Given Josephus information, the surprise mainly regarded the fact that an unfinished retaining wall in this area could also mean that at least parts of the splendid Royal Stoa and the monumental staircase leading up to it could not have been completed during Herods lifetime. Also surprising was the fact that the usually very thorough Herodian builders had cut corners by filling in the ritual bath, rather than placing the foundation course directly onto the much firmer bedrock. Some scholars are doubtful of the interpretation and have offered alternative explanations, such as, for example, later repair work.</p><br>
<p>Herod&#39;s Temple was destroyed by the Romans, along with the rest of Jerusalem, in 70 CE, during the First Jewish-Roman War.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Empire and rise of Christianity – 100–500 CE</h3><br>
<p>In the early centuries of the Common Era, after the Roman defeat of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, Jews were banned from Jerusalem. There is some evidence that Roman emperors in the 2nd and 3rd centuries did permit them to visit the city to worship on the Mount of Olives and sometimes on the Temple Mount itself. When the empire became Christian under Constantine I, they were given permission to enter the city once a year, on the ninth day of the month of Av, to lament the loss of the Temple at the wall. The Bordeaux Pilgrim, written in 333 CE, suggests that it was probably to the perforated stone or the Rock of Moriah, "to which the Jews come every year and anoint it, bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart". This was because an Imperial decree from Rome barred Jews from living in Jerusalem. Just once per year they were permitted to return and bitterly grieve about the fate of their people. Comparable accounts survive, including those by the Church Father, Gregory of Nazianzus and by Jerome in his commentary to Zephaniah written in 392 CE. In the 4th century, Christian sources reveal that the Jews encountered great difficulty in buying the right to pray near the Western Wall, at least on the 9th of Av. In 425 CE, the Jews of the Galilee wrote to Byzantine empress Aelia Eudocia seeking permission to pray by the ruins of the Temple. Permission was granted and they were officially permitted to resettle in Jerusalem.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages – 500–1500</h3><br>
<p>Several Jewish authors of the 10th and 11th centuries write about the Jews resorting to the Western Wall for devotional purposes. Benjamin of Tudela (1170) wrote "In front of this place is the Western Wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court." The account gave rise to confusion about the actual location of Jewish worship and some suggest that Benjamin in fact referred to the Eastern Wall along with its Gate of Mercy. While Nahmanides (d. 1270) did not mention a synagogue near the Western Wall in his detailed account of the temple site, shortly before the Crusader period a synagogue existed at the site. Obadiah of Bertinoro (1488) states "the Westen Wall, part of which is still standing, is made of great, thick stones, larger than any I have seen in buildings of antiquity in Rome or in other lands." Adler preferred the generic translation "western wall" rather than "Western Wall".</p><br>
<p>Shortly after Saladins 1187 siege of the city, in 1193, the sultans son and successor al-Afdal established the land adjacent to the wall as a charitable trust. It was named after an important mystic Abu Madyan Shu&#39;aib and dedicated to Moroccan settlers who had taken up residence there. Houses were built only 4 m away from the wall. The first mention of the Islamic tradition that Buraq was tethered at the site is from the 14th century. A manuscript by Ibn Furkah, (d. 1328), refers to Bab al-Nab (lit. "Gate of the Prophet"), an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al-Sharif.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period – 1517–1917</h3><br>
<p>In 1517, the Turkish Ottomans conquered Jerusalem from the Mamluks who had held it since 1250 and various folktales relate Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent&#39;s quest to locate the Temple site and his order to have the area "swept and sprinkled, and the Western Wall washed with rosewater" upon its discovery. In the late 16th century, Suleiman ordered the construction of an imposing fortress wall to be built around the entire city, which still stands today. At the time, Jews received official permission to worship at the site and Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan built an oratory for them there. In 1625 organised prayers at the Wall are mentioned for the first time.</p><br>
<p>Over the centuries, land close to the Wall became built up. Public access to the Wall was through the Moroccan Quarter, a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. In May 1840 a firman issued by Ibrahim Pasha forbade the Jews to pave the passageway in front of the Wall. It also cautioned them against "raising their voices and displaying their books there." They were, however, allowed "to pay visits to it as of old."</p><br>
<p>writing in the mid-19th-century records:</p><br>
<p>This wall is visited by all our brothers on every feast and festival; and the large space at its foot is often so densely filled up, that all cannot perform their devotions here at the same time. It is also visited, though by less numbers, on every Friday afternoon, and by some nearly every day. No one is molested in these visits by the Mahomedans, as we have a very old firman from the Sultan of Constantinople that the approach shall not be denied to us, though the Porte obtains for this privilege a special tax, which is, however, quite insignificant.</p><br>
<p>Over time the increased numbers of people gathering at the site resulted in tensions between the Jewish visitors who wanted easier access and more space, and the residents, who complained of the noise. This gave rise to Jewish attempts at gaining ownership of the land adjacent to the Wall.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1830s a wealthy Jew named Shemarya Luria attempted to purchase houses near the Wall, but was unsuccessful, as was Jewish sage Abdullah of Bombay who tried to purchase the Western Wall in the 1850s. In 1869 Rabbi Hillel Moshe Gelbstein settled in Jerusalem. He arranged that benches and tables be brought to the Wall on a daily basis for the study groups he organised and the minyan which he led there for years. He also formulated a plan whereby some of the courtyards facing the Wall would be acquired, with the intention of establishing three synagogues – one each for the Sephardim, the Hasidim and the Perushim. He also endeavoured to re-establish an ancient practice of "guards of honour", which according to the mishnah in Middot, were positioned around the Temple Mount. He rented a house near the Wall and paid men to stand guard there and at various other gateways around the mount. However this set-up lasted only for a short time due to lack of funds or because of Arab resentment. In 1874, Mordechai Rosanes paid for the repaving of the alleyway adjacent to the wall.</p><br>
<p>In 1887 Baron Rothschild conceived a plan to purchase and demolish the Moroccan Quarter as "a merit and honor to the Jewish People." The proposed purchase was considered and approved by the Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem, Rauf Pasha, and by the Mufti of Jerusalem, Mohammed Tahir Husseini. Even after permission was obtained from the highest secular and Muslim religious authority to proceed, the transaction was shelved after the authorities insisted that after demolishing the quarter no construction of any type could take place there, only trees could be planted to beautify the area. Additionally the Jews would not have full control over the area. This meant that they would have no power to stop people from using the plaza for various activities, including the driving of mules, which would cause a disturbance to worshippers. Other reports place the scheme&#39;s failure on Jewish infighting as to whether the plan would foster a detrimental Arab reaction.</p><br>
<p>In 1895 Hebrew linguist and publisher Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn became entangled in a failed effort to purchase the Western Wall and lost all his assets. Even the attempts of the Palestine Land Development Company to purchase the environs of the Western Wall for the Jews just before the outbreak of World War I never came to fruition. In the first two months following the Ottoman Empire’s entry into the First World War, the Turkish governor of Jerusalem, Zakey Bey, offered to sell the Moroccan Quarter, which consisted of about 25 houses, to the Jews in order to enlarge the area available to them for prayer. He requested a sum of £20,000 which would be used to both rehouse the Muslim families and to create a public garden in front of the Wall. However, the Jews of the city lacked the necessary funds. A few months later, under Muslim Arab pressure on the Turkish authorities in Jerusalem, Jews became forbidden by official decree to place benches and light candles at the Wall. This sour turn in relations was taken up by the Chacham Bashi who managed to get the ban overturned. In 1915 it was reported that Djemal Pasha closed off the wall to visitation as a sanitary measure.</p><br>
<h4>Firmans issued regarding the Wall</h4><br>
<h3>British rule – 1917–48</h3><br>
<p>In December 1917, Allied forces under Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem from the Turks. Allenby pledged "that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred".</p><br>
<p>In 1919 Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann approached the British Military Governor of Jerusalem, Colonel Sir Ronald Storrs, and offered between £75,000 and £100,000</p><br>
<p>(approx. £5m in modern terms) to purchase the area at the foot of the Wall and rehouse the occupants. Storrs was enthusiastic about the idea because he hoped some of the money would be used to improve Muslim education. Although they appeared promising at first, negotiations broke down after strong Muslim opposition. Storrs wrote two decades later:</p><br>
<p>"The acceptance of the proposals, had it been practicable, would have obviated years of wretched humiliations, including the befouling of the Wall and pavement and the unmannerly braying of the tragi-comic Arab band during Jewish prayer, and culminating in the horrible outrages of 1929"</p><br>
<p>In early 1920, the first Jewish-Arab dispute over the Wall occurred when the Muslim authorities were carrying out minor repair works to the Wall’s upper courses. The Jews, while agreeing that the works were necessary, appealed to the British that they be made under supervision of the newly formed Department of Antiquities, because the Wall was an ancient relic.</p><br>
<p>In 1926 an effort was made to lease the Maghrebi waqf, which included the wall, with the plan of eventually buying it. Negotiations were begun in secret by the Jewish judge Gad Frumkin, with financial backing from American millionaire Nathan Straus. The chairman of the Palestine Zionist Executive, Colonel F. H. Kisch, explained that the aim was "quietly to evacuate the Moroccan occupants of those houses which it would later be necessary to demolish" to create an open space with seats for aged worshippers to sit on. However, Straus withdrew when the price became excessive and the plan came to nothing. The Va&#39;ad Leumi, against the advice of the Palestine Zionist Executive, demanded that the British expropriate the wall and give it to the Jews, but the British refused.</p><br>
<p>In 1928 the Zionist Organisation reported that John Chancellor, High Commissioner of Palestine, believed that the Western Wall should come under Jewish control and wondered "why no great Jewish philanthropist had not bought it yet".</p><br>
<h4>September 1928 disturbances</h4><br>
<p>In 1922, a status quo agreement issued by the mandatory authority forbade the placing of benches or chairs near the Wall. The last occurrence of such a ban was in 1915, but the Ottoman decree was soon retracted after intervention of the Chacham Bashi. In 1928 the District Commissioner of Jerusalem, Edward Keith-Roach, acceded to an Arab request to implement the ban. This led to a British officer being stationed at the Wall making sure that Jews were prevented from sitting. Nor were Jews permitted to separate the sexes with a screen. In practice, a flexible modus vivendi had emerged and such screens had been put up from time to time when large numbers of people gathered to pray.</p><br>
<p>On September 24, 1928, the Day of Atonement, British police resorted to removing by force a screen used to separate men and women at prayer. Women who tried to prevent the screen being dismantled were beaten by the police, who used pieces of the broken wooden frame as clubs. Chairs were then pulled out from under elderly worshipers. The episode made international news and Jews the world over objected to the British action. Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld, the Chief Rabbi of the ultraorthodox Jews in Jerusalem, issued a protest letter on behalf of his community, the Edah HaChareidis, and Agudas Yisroel strongly condemning the desecration of the holy site. Various communal leaders called for a general strike. A large rally was held in the Etz Chaim Yeshiva, following which an angry crowd attacked the local police station in which they believed Douglas Valder Duff, the British officer involved, was sheltering.</p><br>
<p>Commissioner Edward Keith-Roach described the screen as violating the Ottoman status quo that forbade Jews from making any construction in the Western Wall area. He informed the Jewish community that the removal had been carried out under his orders after receiving a complaint from the Supreme Muslim Council. The Arabs were concerned that the Jews were trying to extend their rights at the wall and with this move, ultimately intended to take possession of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The British government issued an announcement explaining the incident and blaming the Jewish beadle at the Wall. It stressed that the removal of the screen was necessary, but expressed regret over the ensuing events.</p><br>
<p>A widespread Arab campaign to protest against presumed Jewish intentions and designs to take possession of the Al Aqsa Mosque swept the country and a "Society for the Protection of the Muslim Holy Places" was established.</p><br>
<p>The Vaad Leumi responding to these Arab fears declared in a statement that "We herewith declare emphatically and sincerely that no Jew has ever thought of encroaching upon the rights of Moslems over their own Holy places, but our Arab brethren should also recognise the rights of Jews in regard to the places in Palestine which are holy to them." The committee also demanded that the British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews.</p><br>
<p>From October 1928 onward, Mufti Amin al-Husayni organised a series of measures to demonstrate the Arabs&#39; exclusive claims to the Temple Mount and its environs. He ordered new construction next to and above the Western Wall. The British granted the Arabs permission to convert a building adjoining the Wall into a mosque and to add a minaret. A muezzin was appointed to perform the Islamic call to prayer and Sufi rites directly next to the Wall. These were seen as a provocation by the Jews who prayed at the Wall. The Jews protested and tensions increased.</p><br>
<p>A British inquiry into the disturbances and investigation regarding the principal issue in the Western Wall dispute, namely the rights of the Jewish worshipers to bring appurtenances to the wall, was convened. The Supreme Muslim Council provided documents dating from the Turkish regime supporting their claims. However, repeated reminders to the Chief Rabbinate to verify which apparatus had been permitted failed to elicit any response. They refused to do so, arguing that Jews had the right to pray at the Wall without restrictions. Subsequently, in November 1928, the Government issued a White Paper entitled "The Western or Wailing Wall in Jerusalem: Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies", which emphasised the maintenance of the status quo and instructed that Jews could only bring "those accessories which had been permitted in Turkish times."</p><br>
<p>A few months later, Haj Amin complained to Chancellor that "Jews were bringing benches and tables in increased numbers to the wall and driving nails into the wall and hanging lamps on them."</p><br>
<h4>1929 Palestine riots</h4><br>
<p>In the summer of 1929, the Mufti Haj Amin Al Husseinni ordered an opening be made at the southern end of the alleyway which straddled the Wall. The former cul-de-sac became a thoroughfare which led from the Temple Mount into the prayer area at the Wall. Mules were herded through the narrow alley, often dropping excrement. This, together with other construction projects in the vicinity, and restricted access to the Wall, resulted in Jewish protests to the British, who remained indifferent.</p><br>
<p>On August 14, 1929, after attacks on individual Jews praying at the Wall, 6,000 Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv, shouting "The Wall is ours." The next day, the Jewish fast of Tisha B&#39;Av, 300 youths raised the Zionist flag and sang Hatikva at the Wall. The day after, on August 16, an organized mob of 2,000 Muslim Arabs descended on the Western Wall, injuring the beadle and burning prayer books, liturgical fixtures and notes of supplication. The rioting spread to the Jewish commercial area of town, and was followed a few days later by the Hebron massacre.</p><br>
<p>133 Jews were killed and 339 injured in the Arab riots, and in the subsequent process of quelling the riots 110 Arabs were killed by British police. This was by far the deadliest attack on Jews during the period of British Rule over Palestine.</p><br>
<h4>1930 international commission</h4><br>
<p>In 1930, in response to the 1929 riots, the British Government appointed a commission "to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall", and to determine the causes of the violence and prevent it in the future. The League of Nations approved the commission on condition that the members were not British.</p><br>
<p>The Jews requested that the Commission take the following actions:</p><br>
<p>To give recognition to the immemorial claim that the Wailing Wall is a Holy Place for the Jews, not only for the Jews in Palestine, but also for the Jews of the whole world.</p><br>
<p>To decree that the Jews shall have the right of access to the Wall for devotion and for prayers in accordance with their ritual without interference or interruption.</p><br>
<p>To decree that it shall be permissible to continue the Jewish services under the conditions of decency and decorum characteristic of a sacred custom that has been carried on for many centuries without infringement upon the religious rights of others.</p><br>
<p>To decree that the drawing up of any regulations that may be necessary as to such devotions and prayers, shall be entrusted to the Rabbinate of Palestine, who shall thus re-assume full responsibility in that matter, in discharge of which responsibility they may consult the Rabbinate of the world.</p><br>
<p>To suggest, if the Commissioners approve of the plan, to the Mandatory Power that it should make the necessary arrangements by which the properties now occupied by the Moghrabi Waqf might be vacated, the Waqf authorities accepting in lieu of them certain new buildings to be erected upon some eligible site in Jerusalem, so that the charitable purpose, for which this Waqf was given, may still be fulfilled.</p><br>
<p>The Commission noted that the Jews do not claim any proprietorship to the Wall or to the Pavement in front of it (concluding speech of Jewish Counsel, Minutes, page 908).</p><br>
<p>David Yellin, Head of the Hebrew Teachers Seminary, member of the Ottoman parliament, and one of the first public figures to join the Zionist movement openly, testified before the Commission. He stated:</p><br>
<p>"Being judged before you today stands a nation that has been deprived of everything that is dear and sacred to it from its emergence in its own land – the graves of its patriarchs, the graves of its great kings, the graves of its holy prophets and, above all, the site of its glorious Temple. Everything has been taken from it and of all the witnesses to its sanctity, only one vestige remains – one side of a tiny portion of a wall, which, on one side, borders the place of its former Temple. In front of this bare stone wall, that nation stands under the open sky, in the heat of summer and in the rains of winter, and pours out its heart to its God in heaven."</p><br>
<p>The Commission concluded that the wall, and the adjacent pavement and Moroccan Quarter, were solely owned by the Muslim waqf. However, Jews had the right to "free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotions at all times", subject to some stipulations that limited which objects could be brought to the Wall and forbade the blowing of the shofar, which was made illegal. Muslims were forbidden to disrupt Jewish devotions by driving animals or other means. Yitzchak Orenstein, who held the position of Rabbi of the Kotel, recorded in April 1930 that "Our master, Rabbi Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld came to pray this morning by the Kosel and one of those present produced a small chair for the Rav to rest on for a few moments. However, no sooner had the Rav sat down did an Arab officer appear and pull the chair away from under him." During the 1930s, at the conclusion of Yom Kippur, young Jews persistently flouted the shofar ban each year and blew the shofar resulting in their arrest and prosecution. They were usually fined or sentenced to imprisonment for three to six months. The Shaw commission determined that the violence occurred due to "racial animosity on the part of the Arabs, consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future."</p><br>
<h3>Jordanian rule – 1948–67</h3><br>
<p>During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Old City together with the Wall was controlled by Jordan. Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement provided for Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall. However, for the following nineteen years, despite numerous requests by Israeli officials and Jewish groups to the United Nations and other international bodies to attempt to enforce the armistice agreement, Jordan refused to abide by this clause. Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories.</p><br>
<p>An exception was made for Christians to participate in Christmas ceremonies in Bethlehem. Some sources claim Jews could only visit the wall if they traveled through Jordan (which was not an option for Israelis) and did not have an Israeli visa stamped in their passports. Only Jordanian soldiers and tourists were to be found there. A vantage point on Mount Zion, from which the Wall could be viewed, became the place where Jews gathered to pray. For thousands of pilgrims, the mount, being the closest location to the Wall under Israeli control, became a substitute site for the traditional priestly blessing ceremony which takes place on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals.</p><br>
<h4>"Al Buraq (Wailing Wall) Rd" sign</h4><br>
<p>During the Jordanian rule of the Old City, a ceramic street sign in Arabic and English was affixed to the stones of the ancient wall. Attached 2.1 m up, it was made up of eight separate ceramic tiles and said Al Buraq Road in Arabic at the top with the English "Al-Buraq (Wailing Wall) Rd" below. When Israeli soldiers arrived at the wall in June 1967, one attempted to scrawl Hebrew lettering on it. The Jerusalem Post reported that on June 8, Ben-Gurion went to the wall and "looked with distaste" at the road sign; "this is not right, it should come down" and he proceeded to dismantle it.</p><br>
<p>This act signaled the climax of the capture of the Old City and the ability of Jews to once again access their holiest sites. Emotional recollections of this event are related by David ben Gurion and Shimon Peres.</p><br>
<h3>Israeli rule – 1967–present</h3><br>
<p>Following Israel&#39;s victory during the 1967 Six-Day War, the Western Wall came under Israeli control. Brigadier Rabbi Shlomo Goren proclaimed after its capture that "Israel would never again relinquish the Wall", a stance supported by Israeli Minister for Defence Moshe Dayan and Chief of Staff General Yitzhak Rabin. Rabin described the moment Israeli soldiers reached the Wall:</p><br>
<p>"There was one moment in the Six-Day War which symbolized the great victory: that was the moment in which the first paratroopers – under Gurs command – reached the stones of the Western Wall, feeling the emotion of the place; there never was, and never will be, another moment like it. Nobody staged that moment. Nobody planned it in advance. Nobody prepared it and nobody was prepared for it; it was as if Providence had directed the whole thing: the paratroopers weeping — loudly and in pain — over their comrades who had fallen along the way, the words of the Kaddish prayer heard by Western Walls stones after 19 years of silence, tears of mourning, shouts of joy, and the singing of "Hatikvah"".</p><br>
<p>Forty-eight hours after capturing the wall, the military, without explicit government order, hastily proceeded to demolish the entire Moroccan Quarter, which stood 4 m from the Wall. The Sheikh Eid Mosque, which was built over one of Jerusalems oldest Islamic schools, the Afdiliyeh, named after one of Saladins sons, was pulled down to make way for the plaza. It was one of three or four that survived from Saladin&#39;s time. 650 people consisting of 106 Arab families were ordered to leave their homes at night. When they refused, bulldozers began to demolish the buildings with people still inside, killing one person and injuring a number of others.</p><br>
<p>According to Eyal Weizman, Chaim Herzog, who later became Israel&#39;s sixth president, took much of the credit for the destruction of the neighbourhood:</p><br>
<p>When we visited the Wailing Wall we found a toilet attached to it... we decided to remove it and from this we came to the conclusion that we could evacuate the entire area in front of the Wailing Wall... a historical opportunity that will never return... We knew that the following Saturday, June 14, would be the Jewish festival of Shavuot and that many will want to come to pray... it all had to be completed by then.</p><br>
<p>The narrow pavement, which could accommodate a maximum of 12,000 per day, was transformed into an enormous plaza that could hold in excess of 400,000.</p><br>
<p>Several months later, the pavement close to the wall was excavated to a depth of two and half metres, exposing an additional two courses of large stones.</p><br>
<p>A complex of buildings against the wall at the southern end of the plaza, that included Madrasa Fakhriya and the house that the Abu al-Sa&#39;ud family had occupied since the 16th century, were spared in the 1967 destruction, but demolished in 1969. The section of the wall dedicated to prayers was thus extended southwards to double its original length, from 28 to 60 m, while the 4 m space facing the wall grew to 40 m.</p><br>
<p>The narrow, approximately 120 m&sup2; pre-1948 alley along the wall, used for Jewish prayer, was enlarged to 2,400 m&sup2, with the entire Western Wall Plaza covering 20,000 m&sup2, stretching from the wall to the Jewish Quarter.</p><br>
<p>The new plaza created in 1967 is used for worship and public gatherings, including Bar mitzvah celebrations and the swearing-in ceremonies of newly full-fledged soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces. Tens of thousands of Jews flock to the wall on the Jewish holidays, and particularly on the fast of Tisha B&#39;Av, which marks the destruction of the Temple and on Jerusalem Day, which commemorates the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the delivery of the Wall into Jewish hands.</p><br>
<p>Conflicts over prayer at the national monument began little more than a year after Israel’s victory in the Six-Day War once again made site accessible to Jews. In July 1968 the World Union for Progressive Judaism, which had planned the group&#39;s international convention in Jerusalem, appealed to the Knesset after the Ministry of Religious Affairs prohibited the organization from hosting mixed-gender services at the Wall. The Knesset committee on internal affairs backed the Ministry of Religious Affairs in disallowing the Jewish convention attendees, who had come from over 24 countries, from worshiping in their fashion. The Orthodox hold that services at the Wall should follow traditional Jewish law for segregated seating followed in synagogues, while the non-Orthodox perspective was that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism."</p><br>
<h4>Robinson's Arch</h4><br>
<p>At the southern end of the Western Wall, Robinsons Arch along with a row of vaults once supported stairs ascending from the street to the Temple Mount. Because it does not come under the direct control of the Rabbi of the Wall or the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the site has been opened to religious groups that hold worship services that would not be approved by the Rabbi or the Ministry in the major mens and women&#39;s prayer areas against the Wall.</p><br>
<p>The need for such an area became apparent when in 1989, after repeated attacks by haredim, activists belonging to a group called Women of the Wall petitioned to secure the right of women to pray at the wall without restrictions. In a 2003 directive, Israels Supreme Court disallowed any women from reading publicly from the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself, but instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinsons Arch to host such events. The site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups, as well as services by the Women of the Wall. In May 2013 a judge ruled that the 2003 Israeli Supreme Court ruling prohibiting women from carrying a Torah or wearing prayer shawls had been misinterpreted and that Women of the Wall prayer gatherings at the wall should not be deemed as disturbing the public order.</p><br>
<p>In November 2010, the government approved a NIS 85m ($23m) scheme to improve access and infrastructure at the site.</p><br>
<p>The Isaiah Stone, located under Robinson&#39;s Arch, has a carved inscription in Hebrew from Isaiah 66:14:</p><br>
<p>וראיתם ושש לבכם ועצמותיכם כדשא תפרחנה ("And when ye see this your heart shall rejoice and your bones shall flourish like an herb").</p><br>
<p>In April 2013, Jewish Agency for Israel leader Natan Sharansky spearheaded a concept that would expand and renovate the Robinsons Arch area into an area where people may "perform worship rituals not based on the Orthodox interpretation of Jewish tradition." On August 25, 2013, a new 4,480 square foot prayer platform named "Azarat Yisrael Plaza" was completed as part of this plan, with access to the platform at all hours, even when the rest of the areas archeological park is closed to visitors. After some controversy regarding the question of authority over this prayer area, the announcement was made that it would come under the authority of a future government-appointed "pluralist council" that would include non-Orthodox representatives. In January 2016, the Israeli Cabinet approved a plan to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and that would not be controlled by the Rabbinate. Women of the Wall welcomed the decision, although Sephardic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Amar of Jerusalem said creating a mixed-gender prayer section was paramount to destroying it. The Chief rabbinate said it would create an alternate plan. In June 2017, it was announced that the plan approved in January 2016 had been suspended.</p><br>
<h4>Wilson's Arch</h4><br>
<p>In 2005, the Western Wall Heritage Foundation initiated a major renovation effort under Rabbi-of-the-Wall Shmuel Rabinovitch. Its goal was to renovate and restore the area within Wilson&#39;s Arch, the covered area to the left of worshipers facing the Wall in the open prayer plaza, in order to increase access for visitors and for prayer.</p><br>
<p>The restoration to the mens section included a Torah ark that can house over 100 Torah scrolls, in addition to new bookshelves, a library, heating for the winter, and air conditioning for the summer. A new room was also built for the scribes who maintain and preserve the Torah scrolls used at the Wall. New construction also included a womens section, overlooking the men&#39;s prayer area, so that women could use this separate area to "take part in the services held inside under the Arch" for the first time.</p><br>
<p>On July 25, 2010, a Ner Tamid, an oil-burning "eternal light," was installed within the prayer hall within Wilson&#39;s Arch, the first eternal light installed in the area of the Western Wall. According to the Western Wall Heritage Foundation, requests had been made for many years that "an olive oil lamp be placed in the prayer hall of the Western Wall Plaza, as is the custom in Jewish synagogues, to represent the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem as well as the continuously burning fire on the altar of burnt offerings in front of the Temple," especially in the closest place to those ancient flames.</p><br>
<p>A number of special worship events have been held since the renovation. They have taken advantage of the cover, temperature control, and enhanced security. However, in addition to the more recent programs, one early event occurred in September 1983, even before the modern renovation. At that time USA Sixth Fleet Chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff was allowed to hold an unusual interfaith service—the first interfaith service ever conducted at the Wall during the time it was under Israeli control—that included men and women sitting together. The ten-minute service included the Priestly Blessing, recited by Resnicoff, who is a Kohen. A Ministry of Religions representative was present, responding to press queries that the service was authorized as part of a special welcome for the USA Sixth Fleet.</p><br>
<h4>Rabbis of the wall</h4><br>
<p>After the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz was named the overseer of proceedings at the wall. After Rabbi Getz&#39;s death in 1995, Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz was given the position.</p><br>
<h2>Theology and ritual</h2><br>
<h3>Judaism</h3><br>
<p>Rabbinic tradition teaches that the western wall was built upon foundations laid by the biblical King Solomon from the time of the First Temple. A Midrash compiled in Late Antiquity refers to a western wall of the Temple which "would never be destroyed", and Lamentations Rabbah mentions how Rome was unable to topple the western wall due to the Divine oath promising its eternal survival. Another Midrash quotes a 4th-century scholar: "Rav Acha said that the Divine Presence has never departed from the Western Wall", and the Zohar similarly writes that "the Divine Presence rests upon the Western Wall".</p><br>
<p>Some medieval rabbis claimed that todays Western Wall is a surviving wall of the Temple itself and cautioned Jews from approaching it, lest they enter the Temple precincts in a state of impurity. Many contemporary rabbis believe that the rabbinic traditions were made in reference to the Temple Mounts Western Wall, which accordingly endows the Wall with inherent holiness. Most secular scholars believe however that these traditions originally pertained to a western wall of the Temple itself, and since the 1500s, were gradually applied to the surviving retaining Western Wall of the Mount.</p><br>
<p>Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kaindenover discusses the mystical aspect of the Hebrew word kotel when discussing the significance of praying against a wall. He cites the Zohar which writes that the word kotel, meaning wall, is made up of two parts: "Ko", which has the numerical value of God’s name, and "Tel", meaning mount, which refers to the Temple and its Western Wall.</p><br>
<p>Eighteenth-century scholar Jonathan Eybeschutz writes that "after the destruction of the Temple, God removed His Presence from His sanctuary and placed it upon the Western Wall where it remains in its holiness and honour". It is told that great Jewish sages, including Isaac Luria and the Radvaz, experienced a revelation of the Divine Presence at the wall.</p><br>
<h4>Sanctity of the Wall</h4><br>
<p>Many contemporary Orthodox scholars rule that the area in front of the Wall has the status of a synagogue and must be treated with due respect. This is the view upheld by the authority in charge of the wall. As such, men and married women are expected to cover their heads upon approaching the Wall, and to dress appropriately. When departing, the custom is to walk backwards away from the Wall. On Saturdays, it is forbidden to enter the area with electronic devices, including cameras, which infringe on the sanctity of the Sabbath.</p><br>
<p>Some Orthodox Jewish codifiers warn against inserting fingers into the cracks of the Wall as they believe that the breadth of the Wall constitutes part of the Temple Mount itself and retains holiness, while others who permit doing so claim that the Wall is located outside the Temple area.</p><br>
<p>In the past, some visitors would write their names on the Wall, or based upon various scriptural verses, would drive nails into the crevices. These practices stopped after rabbis determined that such actions compromised the sanctity of the Wall. Another practice also existed whereby pilgrims or those intending to travel abroad would hack off a chip from the Wall or take some of the sand from between its cracks as a good luck charm or memento. In the late 19th century the question was raised as to whether this was permitted and a long responsa appeared in the Jerusalem newspaper Havatzelet in 1898. It concluded that even if according to Jewish Law it was permitted, the practices should be stopped as it constituted a desecration. More recently the Yalkut Yosef rules that it is forbidden to remove small chips of stone or dust from the Wall, although it is permissible to take twigs from the vegetation which grows in the Wall for an amulet, as they contain no holiness. Cleaning the stones is also problematic from a halachic point of view. Blasphemous graffiti once sprayed by a tourist was left visible for months until it began to peel away.</p><br>
<p>There was once an old custom of removing ones shoes upon approaching the Wall. A 17th-century collection of special prayers to be said at holy places mentions that "upon coming to the Western Wall one should remove his shoes, bow and recite...". Rabbi Moses Reicher wrote that "it is a good and praiseworthy custom to approach the Western Wall in white garments after ablution, kneel and prostrate oneself in submission and recite "This is nothing other than the House of God and here is the gate of Heaven." When within four cubits of the Wall, one should remove their footwear." Over the years the custom of standing barefoot at the Wall has ceased, as there is no need to remove ones shoes when standing by the Wall, because the plaza area is outside the sanctified precinct of the Temple Mount.</p><br>
<p>In Judaism, the Western Wall is venerated as the sole remnant of the Holy Temple. It has become a place of pilgrimage for Jews, as it is the closest permitted accessible site to the holiest spot in Judaism, namely the Even ha-shetiya or Foundation Stone, which lies on the Temple Mount. According to one rabbinic opinion, Jews may not set foot upon the Temple Mount and doing so is a sin punishable by Kareth. While almost all historians and archaeologists and some rabbinical authorities believe that the rocky outcrop in the Dome of the Rock is the Foundation Stone, some rabbis say it is located directly opposite the exposed section of the Western Wall, near the El-kas fountain. This spot was the site of the Holy of Holies when the Temple stood.</p><br>
<h4>Mourning over the Temple's destruction</h4><br>
<p>According to Jewish Law, one is obligated to grieve and rend ones garment upon visiting the Western Wall and seeing the desolate site of the Temple. Bach (17th century) instructs that "when one sees the Gates of Mercy which are situated in the Western Wall, which is the wall King David built, he should recite: Her gates are sunk into the ground; he hath destroyed and broken her bars: her king and her princes are among the nations: the law is no more; her prophets also find no vision from the Lord". Some scholars write that rending ones garments is not applicable nowadays as Jerusalem is under Jewish control. Others disagree, pointing to the fact that the Temple Mount is controlled by the Muslim waqf and that the mosques which sit upon the Temple site should increase feelings of distress. If one hasnt seen the Wall for over 30 days, the prevailing custom is to rend ones garments, but this can be avoided if one visits on the Sabbath or on festivals. According to Donneal Epstein, a person who has not seen the Wall within the last 30 days should recite: "Our Holy Temple, which was our glory, in which our forefathers praised You, was burned and all of our delights were destroyed".</p><br>
<h4>Prayer at the Wall</h4><br>
<p>The Sages of the Talmud stated that anyone who prays at the Temple in Jerusalem, "it is as if he has prayed before the throne of glory because the gate of heaven is situated there and it is open to hear prayer." Jewish Law stipulates that the Silent Prayer should be recited facing towards Jerusalem, the Temple and ultimately the Holy of Holies, as Gods bounty and blessing emanates from that spot. It is generally believed that prayer by the Western Wall is particularly beneficial since it was that wall which was situated closest to the Holy of Holies. Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger writes "since the gate of heaven is near the Western Wall, it is understandable that all Israels prayers ascend on high there... as one of the great ancient kabbalists Rabbi Joseph Gikatilla said, when the Jews send their prayers from the Diaspora in the direction of Jerusalem, from there they ascend by way of the Western Wall." A well-known segula (efficacious remedy) for finding one&#39;s soulmate is to pray for 40 consecutive days at the Western Wall, a practice apparently conceived by Rabbi Yisroel Yaakov Fisher.</p><br>
<p>The Scroll of Ahimaaz, a historical document written in 1050 CE, distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews. In around 1167 CE during the late Crusader Period, Benjamin of Tudela wrote that "In front of this place is the western wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court". In 1625 "arranged prayers" at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved. Scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity, as testified to in a narrative written by Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi who went to Jerusalem in 1699.</p><br>
<p>The writings of various travellers in the Holy Land, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, tell of how the Wall and its environs continued to be a place of devotion for the Jews. Isaac Yahuda, a prominent member of the Sephardic community in Jerusalem recalled how men and women used to gather in a circle at the Wall to hear sermons delivered in Ladino. His great-grandmother, who arrived in Palestine in 1841, "used to go to the Western Wall every Friday afternoon, winter and summer, and stay there until candle-lighting time, reading the entire Book of Psalms and the Song of Songs...she would sit there by herself for hours." In the past women could be found sitting at the entrance to the Wall every Sabbath holding fragrant herbs and spices in order to enable worshipers to make additional blessings. In the hot weather they would provide cool water. The women also used to cast lots for the privilege of sweeping and washing the alleyway at the foot of the Wall. Throughout the ages, the Wall is where Jews have gathered to express gratitude to God or to pray for divine mercy. On news of the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944 thousands of Jews went to the Wall to offer prayers for the "success of His Majesty’s and Allied Forces in the liberation of all enemy-occupied territory." On October 13, 1994, 50,000 gathered to pray for the safe return of kidnapped soldier Nachshon Wachsman. August 10, 2005 saw a massive prayer rally at the Wall. Estimates of people protesting Israels unilateral disengagement plan ranged from 50,000 to 250,000 people. Every year on Tisha BAv large crowds congregate at the Wall to commemorate the destruction of the Temple. In 2007 over 100,000 gathered. During the month of Tishrei 2009, a record 1.5 million people visited the site.</p><br>
<h4>=Egalitarian and non-Orthodox prayer=</h4><br>
<p>While during the late 19th century, no formal segregation of men and women was to be found at the Wall, conflict erupted in July 1968 when members of the World Union for Progressive Judaism were denied the right to host a mixed-gender service at the site after the Ministry of Religious Affairs insisted on maintaining the gender segregation customary at Orthodox places of worship. The progressives responded by claiming that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism." Some commentators called for the closure of the site unless an acceptable solution to the controversy was found. In 2003 Israels Supreme Court upheld the ban on non-Orthodox worship at the Wall and the government responded by allocating Robinsons Arch for such purposes. But in 2012, critics still complained about the restrictions at the Western Wall, saying Israel had "turned a national monument into an ultra-Orthodox synagogue," and in April 2013 the Jerusalem District Court ruled that as long as there was no other appropriate area for pluralistic prayer, prayer according to non-Orthodox custom should be allowed at the Wall. This led to the expansion and renovation of the Robinson&#39;s Arch prayer area which would be placed under the authority of a Pluralist Council. In August 2013, a platform named "Azarat Yisrael Plaza" was completed to facilitate non-Orthodox worship.</p><br>
<h4>=Prayer notes=</h4><br>
<p>There is a much publicised practice of placing slips of paper containing written prayers into the crevices of the Wall. The earliest account of this practice is attributed to Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, (d. 1743). More than a million notes are placed each year and the opportunity to e-mail notes is offered by a number of organisations. It has become customary for visiting dignitaries to place notes too.</p><br>
<h4>=Tefillin=</h4><br>
<p>Shortly after the Western Wall came under Israeli control in 1967, a tefillin stand was erected with permission from Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz, the first rabbi of the Kotel. The stand offers visitors the chance to put on Tefillin, a daily Jewish ritual. In the months following the Six-Day War an estimated 400,000 Jews observed this ritual at the stand. The stand is staffed by multilingual volunteers and an estimated 100,000 visitors put on tefillin there annually.</p><br>
<h3>Islam</h3><br>
<p>Islamic reverence for the site is derived from the belief that the prophet Mohammed tied his miraculous steed Buraq nearby during his night journey to Jerusalem. Various places have been suggested for the exact spot where Buraq was tethered, but for several centuries the preferred location has been the al-Buraq mosque, which is just inside the wall at the south end of the present Western Wall plaza. The mosque is located above an ancient passageway, which once came out through the long-sealed Barclay&#39;s Gate whose huge lintel is still visible directly below the Maghrebi gate.</p><br>
<p>When a British Jew asked the Egyptian authorities in 1840 for permission to re-pave the ground in front of the Western Wall, the governor of Syria wrote:</p><br>
<p>Carl Sandreczki, who was charged with compiling a list of place names for Charles Wilsons Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem in 1865, reported that the street leading to the Western Wall, including the part alongside the wall, belonged to the Hosh (court/enclosure) of al Burâk, "not Obrâk, nor Obrat". In 1866, the Prussian Consul and Orientalist Georg Rosen wrote that "The Arabs call Obrâk the entire length of the wall at the wailing place of the Jews, southwards down to the house of Abu Suud and northwards up to the substructure of the Mechkemeh. Obrâk is not, as was formerly claimed, a corruption of the word Ibri (Hebrews), but simply the neo-Arabic pronunciation of Bōrâk... which, whilst (Muhammad) was at prayer at the holy rock, is said to have been tethered by him inside the wall location mentioned above."</p><br>
<p>The name Hosh al Buraq appeared on the maps of Wilson&#39;s 1865 survey, its revised editions of 1876 and 1900, and other maps in the early 20th century. In 1922, it was the street name specified by the official Pro-Jerusalem Council.</p><br>
<h3>Christianity</h3><br>
<p>Some scholars believe that when Jerusalem came under Christian rule in the 4th century, there was a purposeful "transference" of respect for the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in terms of sanctity to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, while the sites around the Temple Mount became a refuse dump for Christians. However, the actions of many modern Christian leaders, including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI, who visited the Wall and left prayer messages in its crevices, have symbolized for many Christians a restoration of respect and even veneration for this ancient religious site.</p><br>
<h2>Views</h2><br>
<h3>Jewish</h3><br>
<p>Most Jews, religious and secular, consider the wall to be important to the Jewish people since it was originally built to hold the Second Temple. They consider the capture of the wall by Israel in 1967 as a historic event since it restored Jewish access to the site after a 19-year gap. There are, however, some haredi Jews who hold different views. Most notable are the adherents of the Satmar hasidic dynasty who retain the views espoused by their Grand Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum, who would not approach the Wall after the 1967 conquest because of his opposition to Zionism, although he did visit the site during his visits to the Holy Land in the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>In 1994, Shlomo Goren wrote that the tradition of the wall as a Jewish prayer site was only 300 years old, the Jews being compelled to pray there after being forbidden to assemble on the mount itself.</p><br>
<h3>Israeli</h3><br>
<p>A poll carried out in 2007 by the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies indicated that 96% of Israeli Jews were against Israel relinquishing the Western Wall. During a speech at Israel&#39;s Mercaz HaRav yeshivah on Jerusalem Day in 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu declared: "The flag that flies over the Kotel is the Israeli flag... Our holy places, the Temple Mount – will remain under Israeli sovereignty forever."</p><br>
<h3>Muslim</h3><br>
<p>In December 1973, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated that "Only Muslims and Christians have holy places and rights in Jerusalem". The Jews, he maintained, had no rights there at all. As for the Western Wall, he said, "Another wall can be built for them. They can pray against that".</p><br>
<p>Raed Salah, leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel wrote that:</p><br>
<p>"The Western Wall – all its various parts, structures and gates – are an inseparable part of the al-Aqsa compound...The Western Wall is part of Al-Aqsas western tower, which the Israeli establishment fallaciously and sneakily calls the Wailing Wall&#39;. The wall is part of the holy al-Aqsa Mosque".</p><br>
<h3>Palestinian</h3><br>
<p>According to the Palestinian National Authority, the Jews did not consider the Wall as a place for worship until after the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917. The PA-appointed Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima Sa&#39;id Sabri, believes that the Wall belongs to the Muslims alone. In 2000 he related that "No stone of the Al-Buraq wall has any relation to Judaism. The Jews began praying at this wall only in the nineteenth century, when they began to develop aspirations." A year later he stated:</p><br>
<p>In 2006, Dr. Hassan Khader, founder of the Al Quds Encyclopedia, told PA television that the first connection of the Jews to the Wall is "a recent one, which began in the 16th century...not ancient...like the roots of the Islamic connection".</p><br>
<p>In November 2010, an official paper published by the PA Ministry of Information denied Jewish rights to the Wall. It stated that "Al-Buraq Wall is in fact the western wall of Al-Aksa Mosque" and that Jews had only started using the site for worship after the 1917 Balfour Declaration.</p><br>
<p>Yitzhak Reiter writes that "the Islamization and de-Judaization of the Western Wall are a recurrent motif in publications and public statements by the heads of the Islamic Movement in Israel."</p><br>
<h3>American</h3><br>
<p>While recognizing the difficulties inherent in any ultimate peace agreement that involves the status of Jerusalem, the official position of the United States includes a recognition of the importance of the Wall to the Jewish people, and has condemned statements that seek to "delegitimize" the relationship between Jews and the area in general, and the Western Wall in particular. For example, in November 2010, the Obama administration "strongly condemned a Palestinian official&#39;s claim that the Western Wall in the Old City has no religious significance for Jews and is actually Muslim property." The USA State Department noted that the United States rejects such a claim as</p><br>
<p>"factually incorrect, insensitive and highly provocative."</p><br>
<p>Sherwood Forest Plantation Foundation, is located on the north bank of the James River in Charles City County, Virginia. The main plantation house, built in 1730, was the home of 10th President John Tyler  for the last twenty years of his life. It is located on State Route 5, a scenic byway which runs between the independent cities of Richmond and Williamsburg. The house is located approximately 1.5 mi from the river. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Sherwood Forest is the only private residence in the United States to have been owned by two unrelated United States Presidents. William Henry Harrison inherited the plantation, then named Walnut Grove, in 1790 and held it for three years. He sold the 3,000 acre property in 1793 having never lived in the house. Harrison&#39;s Vice President and successor John Tyler purchased the plantation, which by then had been reduced to 1,600 acre, in 1842 and lived there after leaving the White House.</p><br>
<p>John Tyler renamed the plantation Sherwood Forest in 1842. He said it signified that he had been "outlawed" by the Whig party. He was attracted to the plantation because it was near his birthplace at Greenway Plantation. He retired there when he left the White House in 1845 and spent the rest of his life there with his second wife Julia Gardiner Tyler and some of his children - he had eight with his first wife, and seven with his second wife.</p><br>
<p>Pearl, the youngest, was born in 1860, when Tyler was 70 years old; she died in 1947.</p><br>
<p>As regional hostilities in the United States escalated to become the American Civil War in 1861, Tyler backed Virginias secession, although he died in January 1862. Later that spring, the house was occupied by Union soldiers during McClellans Peninsula Campaign of 1862 and again during Grants Overland Campaign in 1864. During the latter, the Battle of Wilsons Wharf was fought nearby. When an Ohio regiment vacated the house in 1864, they attempted to raze it with fire as a punishment for Tyler&#39;s support of the Confederacy. The fire was quickly extinguished by a loyal slave and did little damage to the house.</p><br>
<p>Owners of the house who started restoring it in the mid 1970s started removing some home-made storm windows and then discovered from old records that Tyler had built them himself, so they kept them. One of the house&#39;s claims to fame is its length; 301 feet (91 m). It is also noted for its long, skinny ballroom, a "hyphen" Tyler had added to the house to accommodate the style of dancing popular then - what is today called "line dancing" but was then the "Virginia reel."</p><br>
<p>The house has been in the Tyler family since it was purchased in 1842. The house is currently owned by Harrison Ruffin Tyler, President Tyler&#39;s grandson, and the son of Lyon Gardiner Tyler. He and his wife, Frances Payne Bouknight Tyler, restored the home and grounds based on information gathered from over 47,000 letters describing the decor, furnishings, and landscape. It is open to the public for tours by appointment. The grounds are open daily for self-guided tours from 9am-5pm excepting Thanksgiving and Christmas days.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>A pet cemetery is located on the property, where Tyler family pets were and still are buried, most notably, John Tyler&#39;s horse, The General.</p><br>
<p>Thurii , called also by some Latin writers Thurium , for a time also Copia and Copiae, was a city of Magna Graecia, situated on the Tarentine gulf, within a short distance of the site of Sybaris, whose place it may be considered as having taken. The ruins of the city can be found in the Sybaris archaeological park near Sibari in the Province of Cosenza, Calabria, Italy.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Thurii was one of the latest of all the Greek colonies in this part of Italy, not having been founded until nearly 70 years after the fall of Sybaris. The site of that city had remained desolate for a period of 58 years after its destruction by the Crotoniats; when at length, in 452 BCE, a number of the Sybarite exiles and their descendants made an attempt to establish themselves again on the spot, under the guidance of some leaders of Thessalian origin; and the new colony rose so rapidly to prosperity that it excited the jealousy of the Crotoniats, who, in consequence, expelled the new settlers a little more than 5 years after the establishment of the colony. The fugitive Sybarites first appealed for support to Sparta, but without success: their application to the Athenians was more successful, and that people determined to send out a fresh colony, at the same time that they reinstated the settlers who had been lately expelled from thence. A body of Athenian colonists was accordingly sent out by Pericles, under the command of Lampon and Xenocritus. Pericles&#39; expressed intent was for it to be a Panhellenic colony, and the number of Athenian citizens was small, the greater part of those who took part in the colony being collected from various parts of Greece. Among them were two celebrated names &ndash; Herodotus the historian, and the orator Lysias, both of whom appear to have formed part of the original colony. The laws of the new colony were established by the sophist Protagoras at the request of Pericles, adopting the laws of Zaleucus of Locri.</p><br>
<p>The new colonists at first established themselves on the site of the deserted Sybaris, but shortly afterwards removed (apparently in obedience to an oracle) to a spot at a short distance from thence, where there was a fountain named "Thuria", from whence the new city derived its name of Thurii. The foundation of Thurii is assigned by Diodorus to the year 446 BCE; but other authorities place it three years later, 443 BCE, and this seems to be the best authenticated date. The protection of the Athenian name probably secured the rising colony from the assaults of the Crotoniats, at least we hear nothing of any obstacles to its progress from that quarter; but it was early disturbed by dissensions between the descendants of the original Sybarite settlers and the new colonists, the former laying claim not only to honorary distinctions, but to the exclusive possession of important political privileges. These disputes at length ended in a revolution, and the Sybarites were finally expelled from the city. They established themselves for a short time in Sybaris on the Traeis but did not maintain their footing long, being dislodged and finally dispersed by the neighboring barbarians. The Thurians meanwhile concluded a treaty of peace with Crotona, and the new city rose rapidly to prosperity. Fresh colonists poured in from all quarters, especially the Peloponnese; and though it continued to be generally regarded as an Athenian colony, the Athenians in fact formed but a small element of the population. The citizens were divided, as we learn from Diodorus, into ten tribes, the names of which sufficiently indicate their origin. They were: the Arcadian (from Arcadia), Achaean (from Achaea), Elean (from Elea), Boeotian (from Boeotia), Amphictyonic (from Amphictyonis), Dorian (from Doris), Ionian (from Ionia), Athenian (from Athens), Euboean (from Euboea), and Nesiotic (from the islands). The form of government was democratic, and the city is said to have enjoyed the advantage of a well-ordered system of laws; but the statement of Diodorus, who represents this as owing to the legislation of Charondas, and that lawgiver himself as a citizen of Thurii, is certainly erroneous. The city itself was laid out with great regularity, being divided by four broad streets or plateae, each of which was crossed in like manner by three others.</p><br>
<p>Very shortly after its foundation, Thurii became involved in a war with Tarentum (modern Taranto). The subject of this was the possession of the fertile district of the Siritis, about 50 km north of Thurii, to which the Athenians had a claim of long standing, which was naturally taken up by their colonists. The Spartan general, Cleandridas, who had been banished from Greece some years before, and taken up his abode at Thurii, became the general of the Thurians in this war, which, after various successes, was at length terminated by a compromise, both parties agreeing to the foundation of the new colony of Heracleia in the disputed territory.</p><br>
<p>Knowledge of the history of Thurii is very scanty and fragmentary. Fresh disputes arising between the Athenian citizens and the other colonists were at length allayed by the oracle of Delphi, which decided that the city had no other founder than Apollo. But the same difference appears again on occasion of the great Athenian expedition to Sicily, when the city was divided into two parties, the one desirous of favoring and supporting the Athenians, the other opposed to them. The latter faction at first prevailed, so far that the Thurians observed the same neutrality towards the Athenian fleet under Nicias and Alcibiades as the other cities of Italy. Thurii was, in fact, the city where Alcibiades escaped his Athenian captors who were taking him home for trial.</p><br>
<p>But two years afterwards (413 BCE) the Athenian party had regained the ascendency; and when Demosthenes and Eurymedon touched at Thurii, the citizens afforded them every assistance, and even furnished an auxiliary force of 700 hoplites and 300 dartmen. From this time we hear nothing of Thurii for a period of more than 20 years, though there is reason to believe that this was just the time of its greatest prosperity. In 390 BCE we find that its territory was already beginning to suffer from the incursions of the Lucanians, a new and formidable enemy, for protection against whom all the cities of Magna Graecia had entered into a defensive league. But the Thurians were too impatient to wait for the support of their allies, and issued forth with an army of 14,000 foot and 1000 horse, with which they repulsed the attacks of the Lucanians; but having rashly followed them into their own territory, they were totally defeated, near Laüs, and above 10,000 of them cut to pieces.</p><br>
<p>This defeat must have inflicted a severe blow on the prosperity of Thurii, while the continually increasing power of the Lucanians and Bruttians, in their immediate neighborhood would prevent them from quickly recovering from its effects. The city continued also to be on hostile, or at least unfriendly, terms with Dionysius of Syracuse, and was in consequence chosen as a place of retirement or exile by his brother Leptines and his friend Philistus. The rise of the Bruttian people about 356 BCE probably became the cause of the complete decline of Thurii, but the statement of Diodorus that the city was conquered by that people must be received with considerable doubt. It reappears in history at a later period, when Corinthian soldiers en route to join Timoleon on his expedition to Syracuse are blockaded there by Carthaginian ships. At this point it is still an independent Greek city, though much fallen from its former greatness. No mention of it is found during the wars of Alexander of Epirus in this part of Italy; but at a later period it was so hard pressed by the Lucanians that it had recourse to the alliance of Rome; and a Roman army was sent to its relief under Gaius Fabricius Luscinus. He defeated the Lucanians, who had actually laid siege to the city, in a pitched battle, and by several other successes to a great extent broke their power, and thus relieved the Thurians from all immediate danger from that quarter. But shortly after they were attacked on the other side by the Tarentines, who are said to have taken and plundered their city; and this aggression was one of the immediate causes of the war declared by the Romans against Tarentum in 282 BCE.</p><br>
<p>Thurii now sunk completely into the condition of a dependent ally of Rome, and was protected by a Roman garrison. No mention is found of its name during the wars with Pyrrhus or the First Punic War, but it plays a considerable part in the Second Punic War with Hannibal. It was apparently one of the cities which revolted to the Carthaginians after the battle of Cannae, in another passage, Livy places its defection more precisely in 212 BCE. After the defection of Tarentum, they betrayed the Roman troops into the hands of the Carthaginian general Hanno. A few years later (210 BCE), Hannibal, finding himself unable to protect his allies in Campania, removed the inhabitants of Atella who had survived the fall of their city to Thurii; but it was not long before he was compelled to abandon the latter city also to its fate; and when he himself in 204 BCE withdrew his forces into Bruttium, he removed to Crotona 3500 of the principal citizens of Thurii, while he gave up the city itself to the plunder of his troops. It is evident that Thurii was now sunk to the lowest state of decay; but the great fertility of its territory rendered it desirable to preserve it from utter desolation: hence in 194 BCE, it was one of the places selected for the establishment of a Roman colony with Latin rights. The number of colonists was small in proportion to the extent of land to be divided among them, but they amounted to 3000 foot and 300 knights. Livy says merely that the colony was sent in Thurinum agrum, and does not mention anything of a change of name; but Strabo tells us that they gave to the new colony the name of Copiae, and this statement is confirmed both by Stephanus of Byzantium, and by the evidence of coins, on which, however, the name is written "COPIA". But this new name did not continue long in use, and Thurii still continued to be known by its ancient appellation. It is mentioned as a municipal town on several occasions during the latter ages of the Roman Republic. In 72 BCE it was taken by Spartacus, and subjected to heavy contributions, but not otherwise injured. According to Suetonius, the Octavian family held some renown there, and Gaius Octavius (father of the future Caesar Augustus) defeated a Spartacist army near there; as a result, the future emperor was granted the surname Thurinus shortly after birth. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars it was deemed by Julius Caesar of sufficient importance to be secured with a garrison of Gaulish and Spanish horse; and it was there that M. Caelius Rufus was put to death, after a vain attempt to excite an insurrection in this part of Italy. In 40 BCE also it was attacked by Sextus Pompeius, who laid waste its territory, but was repulsed from the walls of the city.</p><br>
<p>It is certain therefore that Thurii was at this time still a place of some importance, and it is mentioned as a still existing town by Pliny and Ptolemy, as well as Strabo. It was probably, indeed, the only place of any consideration remaining on the coast of the Tarentine gulf, between Crotona and Tarentum; both Metapontum and Heracleia having already fallen into almost complete decay. Its name is still found in the Itineraries. and it is noticed by Procopius as still existing in the 6th century.</p><br>
<h3>Abandonment</h3><br>
<p>Over time the sediment accretion of the Crati river caused its river delta to shift towards the sea at a long term rate of one meter a year. As a consequence the successive sites of Sybaris, Thurii and Copia became landlocked and lost their importance because they no longer had easy access to the sea for trade. The period of its final decay is uncertain; but it seems to have been abandoned during the Middle Ages, when the inhabitants took refuge at a place called Terranova (Terranova da Sibari), about 15 kilometers inland, on a hill on the left bank of the Crati.</p><br>
<p>The exact location of Greek Thurii is not known, but that of the Roman town, which probably though not certainly occupied the same site, is fixed by several ruins as being c. 6 kilometers to the east of Terranova da Sibari, and as occupying an area some 6 km in circuit. It is clear, from the statements both of Diodorus and Strabo, that Thurii occupied a site near to, but distinct from, that of Sybaris: hence the position suggested by some local topographers at the foot of the hill of Terranova, is probably too far inland. It is more likely that the true site is to be sought to the north of the Coscile (the ancient Sybaris), a few kilometers from the sea, where ruins still exist, attributed to Sybaris, but which are probably in reality those of Thurii. Henry Swinburne, however, mentions Roman ruins as existing in the peninsula formed by the rivers Crathis and Sybaris near their junction, which may perhaps be those of Thurii.</p><br>
<h2>Coinage</h2><br>
<p>Thurii had an active mint in antiquity. The coins of Thurii are of great beauty; their number and variety indeed gives us a higher idea of the opulence and prosperity of the city than we should gather from the statements of ancient writers.</p><br>
<h2>Famous people</h2><br>
<p>Alexis (ancient comic poet)</p><br>
<p>Herodotus, who migrated to Thurii from Athens after 443 BCE.</p><br>
<p>The Cascade Range or Cascades is a major mountain range of western North America, extending from southern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to Northern California. It includes both non-volcanic mountains, such as the North Cascades, and the notable volcanoes known as the High Cascades. The small part of the range in British Columbia is referred to as the Canadian Cascades or, locally, as the Cascade Mountains. The latter term is also sometimes used by Washington residents to refer to the Washington section of the Cascades in addition to North Cascades, the more usual USA term, as in North Cascades National Park. The highest peak in the range is Mount Rainier in Washington at 14,411 ft.</p><br>
<p>The Cascades are part of the Pacific Ocean&#39;s Ring of Fire, the ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the Pacific Ocean. All of the eruptions in the contiguous United States over the last 200 years have been from Cascade volcanoes. The two most recent were Lassen Peak from 1914 to 1921 and a major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980. Minor eruptions of Mount St. Helens have also occurred since, most recently from 2004 to 2008. The Cascade Range is a part of the American Cordillera, a nearly continuous chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, and South America.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Cascades extend northward from Lassen Peak (also known as Mount Lassen) in northern California to the confluence of the Nicola and Thompson rivers in British Columbia. The Fraser River separates the Cascades from the Coast Mountains. The highest volcanoes of the Cascades, known as the High Cascades, dominate their surroundings, often standing twice the height of the nearby mountains. They often have a visual height (height above nearby crestlines) of one mile or more. The highest peaks, such as the 14,411 ft Mount Rainier, dominate their surroundings for 50 to 100 mi.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of the range, north of Mount Rainier, is known as the North Cascades in the United States but is formally named the Cascade Mountains north of the Canada–United States border, reaching to the northern extremity of the Cascades at Lytton Mountain. Overall, the North Cascades and Canadian Cascades are extremely rugged; even the lesser peaks are steep and glaciated, and valleys are quite low relative to peaks and ridges, so there is great local relief. The southern part of the Canadian Cascades, particularly the Skagit Range, is geologically and topographically similar to the North Cascades, while the northern and northeastern parts are less glaciated and more plateau-like, resembling nearby areas of the Thompson Plateau.</p><br>
<p>Because of the ranges proximity to the Pacific Ocean and the regions prevailing westerly winds, precipitation is substantial, especially on the western slopes due to orographic lift, with annual snow accumulations of up to 1,000 in in some areas. Mount Baker in Washington recorded a world-record single-season snowfall in the winter of 1998–99 with 1,140 in. Prior to that year, Mount Rainier held the world record for snow accumulation at Paradise in 1978. It is not uncommon for some places in the Cascades to have over 500 in of annual snow accumulation, such as at Lake Helen, near Lassen Peak. Most of the High Cascades are therefore white with snow and ice year-round. The western slopes are densely covered with Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and red alder (Alnus rubra), while the drier eastern slopes feature mostly ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), with some western larch (Larix occidentalis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and subalpine larch (Larix lyallii) at higher elevations. Annual rainfall is as low as 9 in on the eastern foothills due to a rain shadow effect.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the eastern foothills is an arid plateau that was largely created 17 to 14 million years ago by the many flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group. Together, these sequences of fluid volcanic rock form the 200,000 square miles Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington, Oregon, and parts of western Idaho.</p><br>
<p>The Columbia River Gorge is the only major break of the range in the United States. When the Cascades began to rise 7 million years ago in the Pliocene, the Columbia River drained the relatively low Columbia Plateau. As the range grew, erosion from the Columbia River was able to keep pace, creating the gorge and major pass seen today. The gorge also exposes uplifted and warped layers of basalt from the plateau.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Indigenous peoples have inhabited the area for thousands of years and developed their own myths and legends about the Cascades. In these legends, St. Helens with its pre-1980 graceful appearance, was regarded as a beautiful maiden for whom Hood and Adams feuded.</p><br>
<p>Native tribes also developed their own names for the High Cascades and many of the smaller peaks, including "Tahoma", the Lushootseed name for Mount Rainier, "Koma Kulshan" or simply "Kulshan" for Mount Baker, and "Louwala-Clough", meaning "smoking mountain" for Mount St. Helens.</p><br>
<p>In early 1792, British navigator George Vancouver explored Puget Sound and gave English names to the high mountains he saw. Mount Baker was named for Vancouvers third lieutenant, Joseph Baker, although the first European to see it was Manuel Quimper, who named it la gran montaña del Carmelo ("Great Mount Carmel") in 1790. Mount Rainier was named after Admiral Peter Rainier. Later in 1792, Vancouver had his lieutenant William Robert Broughton explore the lower Columbia River. He named Mount Hood after Lord Samuel Hood, an admiral of the Royal Navy. Mount St. Helens was sighted by Vancouver in May 1792, from near the mouth of the Columbia River. It was named for Alleyne FitzHerbert, 1st Baron St Helens, a British diplomat. Vancouvers expedition did not, however, name the mountain range which contained these peaks. He referred to it simply as the "eastern snowy range". Earlier Spanish explorers called it sierra nevadas, meaning "snowy mountains".</p><br>
<p>In 1805, the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed through the Cascades on the Columbia River, which for many years was the only practical way to pass that part of the range. They were the first non-indigenous people to see Mount Adams, but they thought it was Mount St. Helens. When they later saw Mount St. Helens they thought it was Mount Rainier. On their return trip, Lewis and Clark spotted a high but distant snowy pinnacle that they named for the sponsor of the expedition, USA President Thomas Jefferson. Lewis and Clark called the Cascade Range the "Western Mountains".</p><br>
<p>The Lewis and Clark expedition, and the many settlers and traders that followed, met their last obstacle to their journey at the Cascades Rapids in the Columbia River Gorge, a feature on the river now submerged beneath the Bonneville Reservoir. Before long, the great white-capped mountains that loomed above the rapids were called the "mountains by the cascades" and later simply as the "Cascades". The earliest attested use of the name "Cascade Range" is in the writings of botanist David Douglas.</p><br>
<p>In 1814, Alexander Ross, a fur trader with the North West Company, seeking a viable route across the mountains, explored and crossed the northern Cascades between Fort Okanogan and Puget Sound. His report of the journey is vague about the route taken. He followed the lower Methow River into the mountains. He might have used Cascade Pass to reach the Skagit River. Ross was the first European-American to explore the Methow River area and likely the first to explore the Stehekin River and Bridge Creek region. Due to the difficulty of crossing the northern Cascades and the paucity of beaver, fur-trading companies made only a few explorations into the mountains north of the Columbia River after Ross.</p><br>
<p>Exploration and settlement of the Cascades region by Europeans and Americans was accelerated by the establishment of a major trading post of the Hudsons Bay Company (HBC) at Fort Vancouver near todays Portland, Oregon. From this base HBC trapping parties traveled throughout the Cascades in search of beaver and other fur-bearing animals. For example, using what became known as the Siskiyou Trail, Hudson&#39;s Bay Company trappers were the first non-natives to explore the southern Cascades in the 1820s and 1830s, establishing trails which passed near Crater Lake, Mount McLoughlin, Medicine Lake Volcano, Mount Shasta, and Lassen Peak.</p><br>
<p>The course of political history in the Pacific Northwest saw the spine of the Cascade Range being proposed as a boundary settlement during the Oregon Dispute of 1846. The United States rejected the proposal and insisted on the 49th parallel north, which cuts across the range just north of Mount Baker. Throughout the period of dispute and up to the creation of the Crown Colony of British Columbia in 1858, the Hudsons Bay Companys York Factory Express route, as well the route of fur brigades, followed the Okanogan River along the east edge of the Cascades and the Columbia River through the range. Passes across the range were not well known and little used. Naches Pass was used for driving cattle and horses to Fort Nisqually. Yakima Pass was also used by the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company.</p><br>
<p>American settlement of the flanks of the Coast Range did not occur until the early 1840s, at first only marginally. Following the Oregon Treaty the inward flux of migration from the Oregon Trail intensified and the passes and back-valleys of what is now the state of Washington were explored and populated, and it was not long after that railways followed. Despite its being traversed by several major freeways and rail lines, and its lower flanks subjected to major logging in recent decades, large parts of the range remain intense and forbidding alpine wilderness. Much of the northern half of the Cascades, from Rainier north, have been preserved by USA national or British Columbia provincial parks (such as E.C. Manning Provincial Park), or other forms of protected area.</p><br>
<p>The Canadian side of the range has a history that includes the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858–60 and its famous Cariboo Road, as well as the older Hudson&#39;s Bay Company Brigade Trail from the Canyon to the Interior, the Dewdney Trail, and older routes which connected east to the Similkameen and Okanagan valleys.</p><br>
<p>The southern mainline of the Canadian Pacific Railway penetrated the range via the passes of the Coquihalla River, along one of the steepest and snowiest routes in the entire Pacific Cordillera. Near Hope, B.C., the railway roadbed and the Othello Tunnels, now decommissioned, are popular tourist recreation destinations for hiking and bicycling. The pass is used by the Coquihalla Highway, a government megaproject built as part of the Expo 86 spending boom of the 1980s, which is now the main route from the Coast to the British Columbia interior. Traffic formerly went via the Fraser Canyon, to the west, or via Allison Pass and Manning Park along Highway 3 to the south, near the border.</p><br>
<p>The Barlow Road was the first established land path for USA settlers through the Cascade Range in 1845, and formed the final overland link for the Oregon Trail (previously, settlers had to raft down the treacherous rapids of the Columbia River). The Road left the Columbia at what is now Hood River and passed along the south side of Mount Hood at what is now Government Camp, terminating in Oregon City. There is an interpretive site there now at "The End of The Oregon Trail." The road was constructed as a toll road — $5 per wagon — and was very successful.</p><br>
<p>In addition, the Applegate Trail was created to allow settlers to avoid rafting down the Columbia River. The Trail used the path of the California Trail to north-central Nevada. From there, the Trail headed northwest into northern California, and continued northwest towards today&#39;s Ashland, Oregon. From there, settlers would head north along the established Siskiyou Trail into the Willamette Valley.</p><br>
<p>With the exception of the 1915 eruption of remote Lassen Peak in Northern California, the range was quiet for more than a century. Then, on May 18, 1980, the dramatic eruption of little-known Mount St. Helens shattered the quiet and brought the world&#39;s attention to the range. Geologists were also concerned that the St. Helens eruption was a sign that long-dormant Cascade volcanoes might become active once more, as in the period from 1800 to 1857 when a total of eight erupted. None have erupted since St. Helens, but precautions are being taken nevertheless, such as the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System in Pierce County, Washington.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Cascade range is made up of a band of thousands of very small, short-lived volcanoes that have built a platform of lava and volcanic debris. Rising above this volcanic platform are a few strikingly large volcanoes, like Mount St. Helens, that dominate the landscape.</p><br>
<p>The Cascade volcanoes define the Pacific Northwest section of the Ring of Fire, an array of volcanoes that rim the Pacific Ocean. The Ring of Fire is also known for its frequent earthquakes. The volcanoes and earthquakes arise from a common source: subduction, where the dense Juan de Fuca oceanic plate plunges beneath the North American Plate. As the oceanic slab sinks deep into the Earths interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma rises toward the Earths surface to erupt, forming a chain of volcanoes (the Cascade Volcanic Arc) above the subduction zone.</p><br>
<h2>Human uses</h2><br>
<p>Soil conditions for farming are generally good, especially downwind of volcanoes. This is largely because volcanic rocks are often rich in potassium bearing minerals such as orthoclase and decay easily. Volcanic debris, especially lahars, also have a leveling effect and the storage of water in the form of snow and ice is also important. These snow-capped mountains such as Mt. Hood and Mt. Bachelor are used as ski resorts in the late winter. Much of that water eventually flows into reservoirs, where it is used for recreation before its potential energy is captured to generate hydroelectric power before being used to irrigate crops.</p><br>
<p>Because of the abundance of powerful streams, many of the major westward rivers off the Cascades have been dammed to provide hydroelectric power. One of these, Ross Dam on the Skagit River, created a reservoir which spans the border southeast of Hope, British Columbia, extending 2 mi into Canada. At the foot of the southeast flank of Mount Baker, at Concrete, Washington, the Baker River is dammed to form Lake Shannon and Baker Lake.</p><br>
<p>In addition, there is a largely untapped amount of geothermal power that can be generated from the Cascades. The USA Geological Survey Geothermal Research Program has been investigating this potential. Some of this energy is already being used in places like Klamath Falls, Oregon, where volcanic steam is used to heat public buildings. The highest recorded temperature found in the range is 510 &deg;F at 3,075 ft below Newberry Volcano&#39;s caldera floor.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Forests of large, coniferous trees (Western red cedars, Douglas-firs, Western hemlocks, firs, pines, spruces, and others) dominate most of the Cascade Range. Cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers (largely a result of oceanic influence) favor evergreen species, whereas mild temperatures and rich soils promote fast and prolonged growth.</p><br>
<p>As a traveler passes through the Cascade Range, the climate first gets colder, then warmer and drier east of the crest. Most of the Cascades&#39; lower and middle elevations are covered in coniferous forest; the higher altitudes have extensive meadows as well as alpine tundra and glaciers. The southern part of the Cascades are within the California Floristic Province, an area of high biodiversity.</p><br>
<p>Black bears, coyotes, bobcats, cougars, beavers, deer, elk, moose, mountain goats and a few wolf packs returning from Canada live in the Cascades. Fewer than 50 grizzly bears reside in the Cascades of Canada and Washington.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shasta  is a potentially active volcano at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County, California. At an elevation of 4,321.8 m, it is the second-highest peak in the Cascades and the fifth-highest in the state. Mount Shasta has an estimated volume of 85 mi3, which makes it the most voluminous stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc.</p><br>
<p>The mountain and surrounding area are part of the Shasta–Trinity National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Mount Shasta is connected to its satellite cone of Shastina, and together they dominate the landscape. Shasta rises abruptly to tower nearly 10,000 ft above its surroundings. authors, and presidents.</p><br>
<p>The mountain consists of four overlapping volcanic cones that have built a complex shape, including the main summit and the prominent satellite cone of 12,330 ft Shastina, which has a visibly conical form. If Shastina were a separate mountain, it would rank as the fourth-highest peak of the Cascade Range (after Mount Rainier, Rainier&#39;s Liberty Cap, and Mount Shasta itself).</p><br>
<p>Mount Shasta&#39;s surface is relatively free of deep glacial erosion except, paradoxically, for its south side where Sargents Ridge runs parallel to the U-shaped Avalanche Gulch. This is the largest glacial valley on the volcano, although it does not now have a glacier in it. There are seven named glaciers on Mount Shasta, with the four largest (Whitney, Bolam, Hotlum, and Wintun) radiating down from high on the main summit cone to below 10,000 ft primarily on the north and east sides. The Whitney Glacier is the longest, and the Hotlum is the most voluminous glacier in the state of California. Three of the smaller named glaciers occupy cirques near and above 11,000 ft on the south and southeast sides, including the Watkins, Konwakiton, and Mud Creek glaciers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The oldest-known human settlement in the area dates to about 7,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>At the time of Euro-American contact in the 1820s, the Native American tribes who lived within view of Mount Shasta included the Shasta, Okwanuchu, Modoc, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Klamath, Wintu, and Yana tribes.</p><br>
<p>The historic eruption of Mount Shasta in 1786 may have been observed by Lapérouse, but this is disputed. Although perhaps first seen by Spanish explorers, the first reliably reported land sighting of Mount Shasta by a European or American was by Peter Skene Ogden (a leader of a Hudson&#39;s Bay Company trapping brigade) in 1826. In 1827, the name "Sasty" or "Sastise" was given to nearby Mount McLoughlin by Ogden. The name was transferred to present-day Mount Shasta in 1841, partly as a result of work by the United States Exploring Expedition.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in the 1820s, Mount Shasta was a prominent landmark along what became known as the Siskiyou Trail, which runs at Mount Shastas base. The Siskiyou Trail was on the track of an ancient trade and travel route of Native American footpaths between Californias Central Valley and the Pacific Northwest.</p><br>
<p>The California Gold Rush brought the first Euro-American settlements into the area in the early 1850s, including at Yreka, California and Upper Soda Springs. The first recorded ascent of Mount Shasta occurred in 1854 (by Elias Pearce), after several earlier failed attempts. In 1856, the first women (Harriette Eddy, Mary Campbell McCloud, and their party) reached the summit.</p><br>
<p>By the 1860s and 1870s, Mount Shasta was the subject of scientific and literary interest. A book by California pioneer and entrepreneur James Hutchings, titled Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California, contained an account of an early summit trip in 1855. The summit was achieved (or nearly achieved) by John Muir, Josiah Whitney, Clarence King, and John Wesley Powell. In 1877, Muir wrote a dramatic popular article about his surviving an overnight blizzard on Mount Shasta by lying in the hot sulfur springs near the summit. This experience was inspiration to Kim Stanley Robinson&#39;s short story "Muir on Shasta".</p><br>
<p>The 1887 completion of the Central Pacific Railroad, built along the line of the Siskiyou Trail between California and Oregon, brought a substantial increase in tourism, lumbering, and population into the area around Mount Shasta. Early resorts and hotels, such as Shasta Springs and Upper Soda Springs, grew up along the Siskiyou Trail around Mount Shasta, catering to these early adventuresome tourists and mountaineers.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, the Pacific Highway followed the track of the Siskiyou Trail to the base of Mount Shasta, leading to still more access to the mountain. Today&#39;s version of the Siskiyou Trail, Interstate 5, brings thousands of people each year to Mount Shasta.</p><br>
<p>From February 13–19, 1959, the Mount Shasta Ski Bowl obtained the record for the most snowfall during one storm in the USA, with a total of 15.75 ft.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shasta was declared a National Natural Landmark in December 1976.</p><br>
<h3>Religion and legends</h3><br>
<p>The lore of some of the Klamath Tribes in the area held that Mount Shasta is inhabited by the Spirit of the Above-World, Skell, who descended from heaven to the mountain&#39;s summit at the request of a Klamath chief. Skell fought with Spirit of the Below-World, Llao, who resided at Mount Mazama by throwing hot rocks and lava, probably representing the volcanic eruptions at both mountains.</p><br>
<p>Italian settlers arrived in the early 1900s to work in the mills as stonemasons and established a strong Catholic presence in the area. Many other faiths have been attracted to Mount Shasta over the years—more than any other Cascade volcano. Mount Shasta City and Dunsmuir, California, small towns near Shasta&#39;s western base, are focal points for many of these, which range from a Buddhist monastery (Shasta Abbey, founded by Houn Jiyu-Kennett in 1971) to modern-day Native American rituals. A group of Native Americans from the McCloud River area practice rituals on the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shasta has also been a focus for non-Native American legends, centered on a hidden city of advanced beings from the lost continent of Lemuria. The legend grew from an offhand mention of Lemuria in the 1880s, to a description of a hidden Lemurian village in 1925. In 1931, Wisar Spenle Cerve wrote Lemuria: the lost continent of the Pacific, published by the Rosicrucians, about the hidden Lemurians of Mount Shasta that cemented the legend in many readers&#39; minds.</p><br>
<p>In August 1987, believers in the spiritual significance of the Harmonic Convergence described Mount Shasta as one of a small number of global "power centers". Mount Shasta remains a focus of "New Age" attention.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>About 593,000 years ago, andesitic lavas erupted in what is now Mount Shasta&#39;s western flank near McBride Spring. Over time, an ancestral Mount Shasta stratovolcano was built to a large but unknown height; sometime between 300,000 and 360,000 years ago the entire north side of the volcano collapsed, creating an enormous landslide or debris avalanche, 6.5 mi3 in volume. The slide flowed northwestward into Shasta Valley, where the Shasta River now cuts through the 28 mi flow.</p><br>
<p>What remains of the oldest of Mount Shastas four cones is exposed at Sargents Ridge on the south side of the mountain. Lavas from the Sargents Ridge vent cover the Everitt Hill shield at Mount Shastas southern foot. The last lavas to erupt from the vent were hornblende-pyroxene andesites with a hornblende dacite dome at its summit. Glacial erosion has since modified its shape.</p><br>
<p>The next cone to form is exposed south of Mount Shasta&#39;s current summit and is called Misery Hill. It was formed 15,000 to 20,000 years ago from pyroxene andesite flows and has since been intruded by a hornblende dacite dome.</p><br>
<p>There are many buried glacial scars on the mountain which were created in recent glacial periods ("ice ages") of the present Wisconsinian glaciation. Most have since been filled in with andesite lava, pyroclastic flows, and talus from lava domes. Shastina, by comparison, has a fully intact summit crater indicating Shastina developed after the last ice age. Shastina has been built by mostly pyroxene andesite lava flows. Some 9,500 years ago, these flows reached about 6.8 mi south and 3 mi north of the area now occupied by nearby Black Butte. The last eruptions formed Shastinas present summit about a hundred years later. But before that, Shastina, along with the then forming Black Butte dacite plug dome complex to the west, created numerous pyroclastic flows that covered 43 square miles, including large parts of what is now Mount Shasta, California and Weed, California. Diller Canyon (400 ft deep and 0.25 mi wide) is an avalanche chute that was probably carved into Shastinas western face by these flows.</p><br>
<p>The last to form, and the highest cone, the Hotlum Cone, formed about 8,000 years ago. It is named after the Hotlum glacier on its northern face; its longest lava flow, the 500 ft Military Pass flow, extends 5.5 mi down its northeast face. Since the creation of the Hotlum Cone, a dacite dome intruded the cone and now forms the summit. The rock at the 600 ft summit crater has been extensively hydrothermally altered by sulfurous hot springs and fumaroles there (only a few examples still remain).</p><br>
<p>In the last 8,000 years, the Hotlum Cone has erupted at least eight or nine times. About 200 years ago the last significant Mount Shasta eruption came from this cone and created a pyroclastic flow, a hot lahar (mudflow), and three cold lahars, which streamed 7.5 mi down Mount Shasta&#39;s east flank via Ash Creek. A separate hot lahar went 12 mi down Mud Creek. This eruption was thought to have been observed by the explorer La Pérouse, from his ship off the California coast, in 1786, but this has been disputed.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic status</h3><br>
<p>During the last 10,000 years, Mount Shasta has erupted an average of every 800 years, but in the past 4,500 years the volcano has erupted an average of every 600 years. The last significant eruption on Mount Shasta may have occurred about two centuries ago.</p><br>
<p>Mount Shasta can release volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows or dacite and andesite lava. Its deposits can be detected under nearby small towns. Mount Shasta has an explosive, eruptive history. There are fumaroles on the mountain, which show Mount Shasta is still alive.</p><br>
<p>The worst-case scenario for an eruption is a large pyroclastic flow, such as what occurred in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Since there is ice, such as Whitney Glacier and Mud Creek Glacier, lahars would also result. Ash would probably blow inland, perhaps as far as eastern Nevada. There is a small chance an eruption could result in a collapse of the mountain, as happened when Mount Mazama in Oregon collapsed to form what is now called Crater Lake, but this is of much lower probability.</p><br>
<p>The United States Geological Survey monitors Mount Shasta and rates it as a very high-threat volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>Many climbers attempt the summit of Mount Shasta. The summer climbing season runs from late April until October, although many attempts are made in the winter. In winter, Sargents Ridge and Casaval Ridge, to the east and west of Avalanche Gulch, respectively, become the most traveled routes, to avoid avalanche danger. Mount Shasta is also a popular destination for backcountry skiing. Many of the climbing routes can be descended by experienced skiers, and there are numerous lower-angled areas around the base of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The most popular route on Mount Shasta is Avalanche Gulch route, which begins at the Bunny Flat Trailhead and gains about 7,300 ft of elevation in approximately 11.5 mi round trip. The crux of this route is considered to be to climb from Lake Helen, at approximately 10,443 ft, to the top of Red Banks. The Red Banks are the most technical portion of the climb, as they are usually full of snow/ice, are very steep, and top out at around 13,000 ft before the route heads to Misery Hill.</p><br>
<p>The Casaval Ridge route is a steeper, more technical route on the mountains southwest ridge best climbed when theres a lot of snow pack. This route tops out to the left (north) of the Red Banks, directly west of Misery Hill. So the final sections involve a trudge up Misery Hill to the summit plateau, similar to the Avalanche Gulch route.</p><br>
<p>No quota system currently exists for climbing Mount Shasta, and reservations are not required. However, climbers must obtain a summit pass and a wilderness permit to climb the mountain. Permits and passes are available at the ranger station in Mount Shasta and the ranger station in McCloud, or climbers can obtain self-issue permits and passes at any of the trailheads 24 hours a day.</p><br>
<h2>In Popular Culture</h2><br>
<p>"Mount Shasta" is the third song on Buckethead&#39;s 2015 album Old Toys</p><br>
<p>Lake Constance  is a lake on the Rhine at the northern foot of the Alps, and consists of three bodies of water: the Obersee or Upper Lake Constance, the Untersee or Lower Lake Constance, and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein. These waterbodies lie within the Lake Constance Basin , which is part of the Alpine Foreland and through which the Rhine flows.</p><br>
<p>The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria near the Alps. Its shorelines lie in the German states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of Thurgau, St Gallen, and Schaffhausen. The Rhine flows into the lake from the south, with its original course forming the Austro-Swiss border, and has its outflow on the "Lower Lake" where — except for Schaffhausen — it forms the German-Swiss border until the city of Basel.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Freshwater Lake Constance is central Europes third largest, after Lake Balaton and Lake Geneva. It is 63 km long, and at its widest point, nearly 14 km. It covers approximately 571 km&sup2, and is 395 m above sea level. The greatest depth is 252 m in the middle of the eastern part (Obersee). Its volume is approximately 10 e9m3. The lake has four parts: the main section, called Obersee, 476 km&sup2 the north section, Überlinger See, 61 km&sup2 the west section, Untersee, 63 km&sup2 and the northwest section, the Zeller See and Gnadensee. The regulated Rhine flows into the lake in the southeast, through the Obersee, the city of Konstanz and the Untersee, and flows out near Stein am Rhein. The lake itself is an important drinking water source for southwestern Germany, called Bodensee-Wasserversorgung ("Lake Constance Water Supply"). The culminating point of the lakes drainage basin is the Tödi at 3,614 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Car ferries link Romanshorn to Friedrichshafen, and Konstanz to Meersburg.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lake Constance was formed by the Rhine Glacier during the ice age and is a zungenbecken lake. After the end of the last glacial period, about 10,000 years ago, the Obersee and Untersee still formed a single lake. The downward erosion of the High Rhine caused the lake level to gradually sink and a sill, the Konstanzer Schwelle, to emerge.</p><br>
<p>The Rhine, the Bregenzer Ache, and the Dornbirner Ache carry sediments from the Alps to the lake, thus gradually decreasing the depth and coastline extension of the lake in the southeast.</p><br>
<p>In antiquity the two lakes still had different names; later, for reasons which are unknown, they came to have the same name.</p><br>
<h3>Name</h3><br>
<p>The Roman geographer, Pomponius Mela, was the first to mention the lake around 43 AD, calling the Lacus Venetus and the Untersee Lacus Acronius, the Rhine passing through both. Around 75 AD, The naturalist Pliny the Elder called the entire Lake Constance, Lacus Raetiae Brigantinus after the main Roman town on the lake, Brigantium (later Bregenz). This name is associated with the Celtic Brigantii who lived here, although it is not clear whether the place was named after the tribe or the inhabitants of the region were named after their main settlement. Ammianus Marcellinus later used the form Lacus Brigantiae.</p><br>
<p>The current German name of Bodensee derives from the place name Bodman, which probably originally derived from the Old High German bodamon which meant "on the soils", indicating a place on level terrain by the lake. This place, situated at the west end of Lake Überlingen (Überlinger See), had a more supraregional character for a certain period in the early Middle Ages as a Frankish imperial palace (Königspfalz), Alamannian ducal seat and mint, which is why the name may have been transferred to the lake ("lake, by which Bodman is situated"=Bodmansee). From 833/834 AD, in Latin sources, the name appears in its latinised form lacus potamicus. Therefore, the name actually derived from the Bodman Pfalz (Latinized as Potamum) was wrongly assumed by monastic scholars like Walahfrid Strabo to be derived from the Greek word potamos for "river" and meant "river lake". They may also have been influenced by the fact that the Rhine flowed through the lake.</p><br>
<p>Wolfram von Eschenbach describes it in Middle High German as the Bodemensee or Bodemsee which has finally evolved into the present German name, Bodensee. The name may be linked to that of the Bodanrück, the hill range between Lake Überlingen and the Untersee, and the history of the House of Bodman.</p><br>
<p>The German name of the lake, Bodensee, has been adopted by many other languages, for example: Dutch: Bodenmeer, Danish: Bodensøen, Norwegian: Bodensjøen, Swedish: Bodensjön, Islandic: Bodenvatn, Finnish: Bodenjärvi, Estonian: Bodeni järv, Lithuanian: Bodeno ežeras, Latvian: Bodenezers, Russian: Боденское озеро, Polish: Jezioro Bodeńskie, Czech: Bodamské jezero, Slovak: Bodamské jazero, Hungarian: Bodeni-tó, Bulgarian: Боденско езеро, Ukrainian: Боденське озеро, Croatian: Bodensko jezero, Albanian: Liqeni i Bodenit. Even in many Asiatic languages, the lake is called the Bodensee e.g. Azerbaijani: Boden gölü, Tatar: Боден күле, Marathi: बोडन से Bōdana sē, Mandarin:, Korean: 보덴 호 Boden-ho, Japanese: ボーデン湖 Bōden-ko.</p><br>
<p>After the Council of Constance in the 15th century, the alternative name Lacus Constantinus was used in the (Roman Catholic) Romance language area. This name, which had been attested as early as 1187 in the form Lacus Constantiensis, came from the town of Konstanz at the outflow of the Rhine from the Obersee, whose original name, Constantia, was in turn derived from the Roman emperor, Constantius Chlorus (around 300 AD). Hence the French: Lac de Constance, Italian: Lago di Costanza, Portuguese: Lago de Constança, Spanish: Lago de Constanza, Romanian: Lacul Constanța, Greek: Λίμνη της Κωνσταντίας – Limni tis Konstantias. The Arabic, بحيرة كونستانس buħaira Konstans and probably the Turkish, Konstanz gölü, probably go back to the French form of the name. Even in Romance-influenced English the name "Lake Constance" gained a foothold and was then exported into other languages such as Hebrew: ימת קונסטנץ yamat Konstanz and Swahili: Ziwa la Konstanz. In many languages both forms exist in parallel e.g. Romansh: Lai da Constanza and Lai Bodan, Esperanto: Konstanca Lago and Bodenlago.</p><br>
<p>The poetic name, "Swabian Sea" was adopted by authors of the early modern era and the Enlightenment from ancient authors, possibly Tacitus. However, this assumption was based on an error (similar to that of the Teutoburg Forest and the Taunus): the Romans sometimes used the name Mare Suebicum for the Baltic Sea, not Lake Constance. In times when the Romans had located the so-called "Suebi", then an Elbe Germanic tribe near a sea, this was understandable. The authors of the Early Modern Period overlooked this and adopted the name for the largest lake in the middle of the former Duchy of Swabia, which also included parts of today&#39;s Switzerland. Today the name Swabian Sea (Schwäbisches Meer) is only used jocularly as a hyperbolic term for Lake Constance.</p><br>
<h3>Key facts</h3><br>
<p>No Paleolithic finds have been made in the immediate vicinity of the lake, because the region of Lake Constance was covered for a long time by the Rhine Glacier. The discovery of stone tools (microliths) indicate that hunters and gatherers of the Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age, 8,000-5,500 BC) frequented the area without settling, however. Only hunting camps have been confirmed. The earliest Neolithic farmers, who belonged to the Linear Pottery culture, also left no traces behind, because the Alpine foreland lay away from the routes along which they had spread during the 6th century BC. This changed only in the middle and late Neolithic when shore settlements were established, the so-called pile dwelling and wetland settlements, which have now been uncovered mainly on Lake Überlingen, the Constance Hopper and on the Obersee. At Unteruhldingen, such a pile dwelling village has been reconstructed and is now accessible as a museum.</p><br>
<p>Grave finds from Singen am Hohentwiel date to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age and shore settlements were repeatedly built during the Neolithic Period and the Bronze Age (up to 800 BC). During the following Iron Age the settlement history is interrupted. The settlement of the shore of Lake Constance during the Hallstatt period is attested by grave mounds, which today are usually found in forests where they have been protected from the destruction by agriculture. Since the late Hallstatt period, the peoples living on Lake Constance are referred to as the Celts. During the La Tène period from 450 AD, the population density decreases, as can be deduced partly due from the fact that no more grave mounds were built. For the first time, we have written reports on Lake Constance that have survived. Thus, we learn that the Helvetians settled by the lake in the south, the Rhaetians in the area of the Alpine Rhine Valley and the Vindelici in the northeast. The most important places on the lake were Bregenz (Celtic Brigantion) and today&#39;s Constance.</p><br>
<p>In the course of the Roman Alpine campaign of 16/15 BC, the Lake Constance region was integrated into the Roman Empire. During the campaign, there was also supposed to have been a battle on Lake Constance. The geographer, Pomponius Mela, makes the first mention in 43 AD of Lake Constance as two lakes - the Lacus Venetus (Upper Lake) and the Lacus Acronius (Untersee) - with the Rhine flowing through both. Pliny the Elder referred to Lake Constance as Lacus Brigantinus for the first time. The most important Roman site was Bregenz, which soon became subject to Roman municipal law and later became the seat of the Prefect of the Lake Constance fleet. The Romans were also in Lindau, but settled only on the hills around Lindau as the lakeshore was swampy. Other Roman towns were Constantia (Constance) and Arbor Felix (Arbon).</p><br>
<p>After the borders of the Roman Empire were drawn back to the Rhine boundary in the 3rd century BC, the Alemanni gradually settled on the north shore of Lake Constance and, later, on the south bank as well. After the introduction of Christianity, the cultural significance of the region grew as a result of the founding of Reichenau Abbey and the Bishopric of Constance. Under the rule of the Hohenstaufens, Imperial Diets (Reichstage) were held by Lake Constance. In Constance, too, a treaty was drawn up between the Hohenstaufen emperor and the Lombard League. Lake Constance also played an important role as a trading post for goods being traded between German and Italian states.</p><br>
<p>During the Thirty Years&#39; War, there were various conflicts over the control of the region during the Lake War (1632-1648).</p><br>
<p>After the War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), which also affected the region and during which Austrian and French flotillas operated on Lake Constance, there was a reorganisation of state relationships.</p><br>
<h3>Historical maps</h3><br>
<p>1540: the map Lacus Constantiensis by Johannes Zwick and Thomas Blarer shows topographic names, towns and the Rhine.</p><br>
<p>1555: the map of the route of the Rhine (Rhinelaufkarte) by Caspar Vopel includes a topographical map of Lake Constance with its larger towns, the tributaries and the course of the Rhine.</p><br>
<p>1633: the Swabian map by Johannes Janssonius, Amsterdam: Totius Sveviae novissima tabula shows Lake Constance with islands, tributaries, towns and villages.</p><br>
<p>1675: The Lake Constance map, Lacos Acronianus sive Bodamicus, by Nikolaus David Hautt based on Andreas Arzet SJ shows Lake Constance with the adjacent lands.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Divisions</h3><br>
<p>Lake Constance is located in the foothills of the Alps. The shore length of both main lakes is 273 kilometres long. Of this, 173 kilometres are located in Germany (Baden-Württemberg 155 km, Bavaria 18 km), 28 kilometres run through Austria and 72 kilometres through Switzerland. If the Upper and Lower Lakes are combined, Lake Constance has a total area of 536 km², the third largest lake in Central Europe by area after Lake Balaton (594 km²) and Lake Geneva (580 km²). It is also the second largest by water volume (48.5 km³) after Lake Geneva (89 km³) and extends for over 69.2 kilometres between Bregenz and Stein am Rhein. Its catchment area is around 11,500 square kilometres, and reaching as far south as Lago di Lei in Italy.</p><br>
<p>The area of the Obersee is 473 km². It extends from Bregenz to Bodman-Ludwigshafen for over 63.3 kilometres and is 14 kilometres wide between Friedrichshafen and Romanshorn. At its deepest point between Fischbach and Uttwil, it is 251.14 metres deep.</p><br>
<p>The three small bays on the Vorarlberg shore have their own names: the Bay of Bregenz, off Hard and Fußach is the Bay of Fussach and, west of that is the Wetterwinkel. Farther west, now in Switzerland, is the Bay of Rorschach. To the north, on the Bavarian side, is the Bay of Reutin. The railway embankment from the mainland to the island of Lindau and the motorway bridge over the lake border the so-called Little Lake (Kleiner See), which is located between the Lindau village of Aeschach and the island.</p><br>
<p>The northwestern, finger-shaped arm of the Obersee is called Lake Überlingen. It is usually regarded as a separate lake, the boundary between the Obersee and Lake Überlingen runs approximately along the line between the southeast tip of Bodanrück (the Hörnle, which belongs to the town of Konstanz) and Meersburg. The Constance Hopper lies between the German and Swiss shores east of Konstanz.</p><br>
<p>The Obersee and Untersee are connected by the Seerhein.</p><br>
<p>The Untersee, which is separated from the Obersee and from its north-west arm, Lake Überlingen, by the large peninsula of Bodanrück, has an area of 63 km². It is strongly characterised and divided into different areas by end moraines, various glacial snouts and medial moraines. These various areas of the lake have their own names. North of Reichenau Island is the Gnadensee. West of the island of Reichenau, between the peninsula of Höri and the peninsula of Mettnau is Lake Zell. North of the Mettnau lies the Markelfinger Winkel. The drumlins of the southern Bodanrück continue along the bed of these northern parts of the lake. South of the Reichenau, from Gottlieben to Eschenz, stretches the Rheinsee ("Rhine Lake") with strong Rhine currents in places. Previously this lake part was named Lake Bernang after the village of Berlingen. On most of the maps the name of the Rheinsee is not shown, because this place is best suited for the name of the Untersee.</p><br>
<h3>Emergence and future</h3><br>
<p>The present-day shape of Lake Constance has resulted from the combination of several factors:</p><br>
<p>The tectonic Lake Constance Basin between the Alps and the Jura was created in the Jurassic and Tertiary periods</p><br>
<p>The current Alpine Rhine was initially a tributary of the Danube.</p><br>
<p>Over time, the basin was captured by the High Rhine as a result of headward erosion (fluvial erosion).</p><br>
<p>The capture was not always only along the present Rhine valley; Lake Überlingen marks part of an older valley course.</p><br>
<p>The river valleys were deepened during several cold periods by the Rhine Glacier from the valley of the Alpine Rhine (glacial erosion).</p><br>
<p>Behind the present impressive traces of the Würm Ice Age, the effects of older cold periods can no longer be explored in any detail. Lake Constance now represents, above all, a zungenbecken or glacial lake of the Würm Glaciation.</p><br>
<p>During a later phase of the ice age, only the Obersee was glaciated. As the glacier retreated further, the glacial meltwaters flowed out of the emerging Überlingen lake through the older more northerly valley into the present High Rhine valley.</p><br>
<p>Due to the advancing headward erosion, the present course of the High Rhine was finally (again) reconnected to Lake Constance.</p><br>
<p>Like any glacial lake, Lake Constance will also become silted up by sedimentation in the near future. This process can best be observed at the mouths of the larger rivers, especially that of the Alpine Rhine. The silting up process is accelerated by ever-increasing erosion by the Rhine and the associated reduction in the level of the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>The main tributary of Lake Constance is the Alpine Rhine. The Alpine Rhine and the Seerhein do not mix greatly with the waters of the lake and flow through the lakes along courses that change relatively little. There are also numerous smaller tributaries (236 in all). The most important tributaries of the Obersee are (counterclockwise) the Dornbirner Ach, Bregenzer Ach, Leiblach, Argen, Schussen, Rotach, Seefelder Aach, Stockacher Aach, Salmsacher Aach, the Aach near Arbon, Steinach, Goldach and the Old Rhine. The outflow of the Obersee is the Seerhein, which in turn is the main tributary of the Untersee. The most important tributary of the Untersee is the Radolfzeller Aach.</p><br>
<p>Because the Alpine Rhine brings with it drift from the mountains and deposits this material as sediment, the Bay of Bregenz will silt up in a few centuries time. The silting up of the entire Lake Constance is estimated to take another ten to twenty thousand years.</p><br>
<h3>Outflows, evaporation, water extraction</h3><br>
<p>The outflow of the Untersee is the High Rhine with the Rhine Falls at Schaffhausen. Both the average precipitation of 0.45 km³/a and evaporation which averages 0.29 km³/a cause a net change in the level of Lake Constance that is less when compared to the influence of the inflows and outflows. Further quantities of lake water are extracted by municipal waterworks around the lake and the water company of Bodensee-Wasserversorgung.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>In Lake Constance there are ten islands that are larger than 2,000 m².</p><br>
<p>By far the largest is the island of Reichenau in the Untersee, which belongs to the municipality of Reichenau. The former abbey of Reichenau is a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its three early and highly medieval churches. The island is also known for its intensive cultivation of fruit and vegetables.</p><br>
<p>The island of Lindau is located in the east of the Obersee, and is the second largest island. On it is the old town and main railway station of Lindau.</p><br>
<p>The third largest island is Mainau in the southeast of Lake Überlingen. The owners, the family of Bernadotte, have set up the island as a tourist attraction and created botanical gardens and wildlife enclosures.</p><br>
<p>Relatively large, but uninhabited and inaccessible because of their status as nature reserves, are two islands off the Wollmatinger Ried: the Triboldingerbohl which has an area of 13 ha and Mittler or Langbohl which is just 3 ha in area.</p><br>
<p>Smaller islands in the Obersee are:</p><br>
<p>Dominican Island (Dominikanerinsel) separated by a six-metre-wide ditch from the old town of Constance which is home to the Steigenberger Hotel (2 ha)</p><br>
<p>The tiny island of Hoy near Lindau</p><br>
<p>The ten artificial islands on the Rhine Causeway on the Fußach side</p><br>
<p>The little island by the port of Romanshorn</p><br>
<p>The Wollschweininsel (officially Wulesaueninsle) by the Seepark in Kreuzlingen</p><br>
<p>In the Untersee are:</p><br>
<p>the islands of Werd, Mittleres Werdli and Unteres Werdli which together form the Werd Islands group are located at the outflow of the Rhine from the Untersee at Stein am Rhein into the High Rhine.</p><br>
<p>The so-called Liebesinsel ("Love Island", 0.2 ha) southwest of the Mettnau peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Peninsulas</h3><br>
<p>In Lake Constance there are several peninsulas which vary greatly in size:</p><br>
<p>The Bodanrück, the largest peninsula, separates the Obersee (Lake Überlingen) from the Untersee. It covers an area of 112 sq km.</p><br>
<p>The Mettnau in the Untersee, which extends towards the island of Reichenau, separates Lake Zell in the south from the Markelfinger Winkel in the north. It has a surface area of 1.7 km².</p><br>
<p>The approximately 45-square-kilometre Höri, which also extends towards the island of Reichenau, separates Lake Zell to the north from the Rheinsee to the south.</p><br>
<p>In the southeast, near the mouth of the new Rhine Canal, the Rohrspitz juts out about 1.2 km into the lake and forms the western perimeter of the Bay of Fußach. It has an area of approximately 50 hectares.</p><br>
<p>The Wasserburg peninsula has a castle, Schloss Wasserburg, and the parish church of St. George. The peninsula is on the northeastern shore of the Obersee between the Bay of Nonnenhorn in the west and Bay of Wasserburg in the east. It has an area of 2.3 ha and was an island until 1720, when the Fuggers built a causeway. In March 2009, 27 people lived on the peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The Galgeninsel ("Gallows Island") in the Bay of Reutin is also a peninsula that was formerly an island. It is only 0.16 hectares in area.</p><br>
<h3>Shore</h3><br>
<p>The shores of Lake Constance consist mainly of gravel. In some places there are also sandy beaches, such as the Rohrspitz in the Austrian section of the lake, the Langenargen and Marienschlucht.</p><br>
<p>According to the data of the International Water Protection Commission for the Lake Constance, the approximate shore length is 273 km (see Coastline paradox). The inflow of water is constantly changing, mainly due to rain and the snow melt in the Alps. Its average surface area is approximately (in Switzerland the absolute value is slightly higher in m above sea level). The more or less regular seasonal fluctuations in the water level also lead to slight variations in shore length and differences in the shore zone habitats (depending on high and low water).</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate of the Lake Constance area is characterised by mild temperatures with moderate gradients, thanks to the balancing and retarding effect of the large body of water. However, due to the year-round influence of föhn winds which causes frequent fog in winter and close weather in summer, it is considered a stressful climate.</p><br>
<p>Lake Constance is also considered to be a risky and challenging lake for water sports because of the danger of gusty winds which can whip up waves as the weather changes suddenly. The most dangerous wind is the föhn, a warm down-slope wind from the Alps, which spreads out across the water, especially through the Alpine Rhine Valley and can generate waves several metres high.</p><br>
<p>Similarly dangerous for those unfamiliar with the area, are the sudden stormy gusts of wind during summer thunderstorms. They constantly claim victims from the water sports fraternity. During a thunderstorm in July 2006, waves reached heights of up to 3.50 metres.</p><br>
<p>For these reasons, there is a storm warning system in all three neighbouring countries. For storm warning purposes, Lake Constance is divided into three warning regions (west, centre and east). Warnings can be issued for each region independently. A "high winds" warning will be issued when squalls are expected of between 25 and 33 knots or registering force 6 to 8 on the Beaufort scale. A gale warning announces the likelihood of gale-force winds, i.e. those at speeds as of 34 knots or more or force 8 on the Beaufort scale. In order to issue these warnings, orange-coloured flashing lights are installed around the lake, which flash at a frequency of 40 times per minute for high winds or 90 times per minute for gales. It can happen that, due to the differently regulated responsibilities and assessments, a gale warning is issued on the Swiss side of the Obersee, but not on the German or Austrian shores, and vice-versa. Ships and ferries on Lake Constance indicate a gale warning by hoisting a Sturmballon ("storm ball") up the mast.</p><br>
<p>A one-hundred year event is the freezing over of Lake Constance, when the Untersee, Lake Überlingen and the Obersee are completely frozen over so that people can safely cross the lake on foot. The three last so-called Seegfrörne events were in 1963, 1880 and 1830.</p><br>
<p>Certain parts of the lake freeze over more frequently, mainly due to their shallow depth of water and shelter, as is the case, for example, of the so-called Markelfinger Winkel between the municipality of Markelfingen and the Mettnau peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>International borders</h3><br>
<p>Lake Constance is the only area in Europe where no borders exist, because there is no legally binding agreement as to where the borders lie between Switzerland, Germany and Austria. However, Switzerland holds the view that the border runs through the middle of the lake, Austria is of the opinion that the contentious area belongs to all the states on its banks, which is known as a "condominium", and Germany holds an ambiguous opinion. Legal questions pertaining to ship transport and fishing are regulated in separate treaties.</p><br>
<p>Naturally, disputes arise. One concerns a houseboat which was moored in two states (ECJ c. 224/97 Erich Ciola); another concerns the rights to fish in the Bay of Bregenz. In relation to the latter, an Austrian family was of the opinion that it alone had the right to fish in broad portions of the bay. However, this was accepted neither by the Austrian courts nor by the organs and courts of the other states.</p><br>
<h3>Floods</h3><br>
<p>A 100-year flood around June 1999 (Pfingsthochwasser 1999) raised the level about 2 metres above normal, flooding harbors and many shoreline buildings and hotels.</p><br>
<p>In late August 2005, heavy rain raised the level by more than 70 cm in a few days. The rains caused widespread flooding and washed out highways and railroads.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Until the 19th century, Lake Constance was a natural lake. Since then, nature has been heavily influenced by clearing and the cultivation of much of the land around its shores. However, some near-natural areas have been largely conserved, especially in the nature reserves, or were re-naturalised. As a result, the Lake Constance region has some unusual ecological features. These include the large forested area on the Bodanrück, the occurrence of marsh gentian and orchids of the genera Dactylorhiza and Orchis in the Wollmatinger Ried, and the Siberian iris (Iris sibirica) in the Eriskircher Ried, which was therefore given its own name. One unique species among the local flora is the Lake Constance forget-me-not (Myosotis rehsteineri), whose habitat is restricted to undisturbed beaches of lime trees.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<h4>Birds</h4><br>
<p>Lake Constance is also the home of numerous species of birds, many of which next in its nature reserves, such as the Wollmatinger Ried or the Mettnau peninsula. 412 species have so far been recorded.</p><br>
<h4>=Songbirds=</h4><br>
<p>The ten most common breeding bird species at Lake Constance according to a 2000-2003 survey in descending order are the: blackbird, chaffinch, starling, robin, chiffchaff, greenfinch, and blue tit.</p><br>
<h4>=Waterfowl=</h4><br>
<p>In spring, the Lake Constance is an important breeding ground, especially for the coot and great crested grebe. Typical waterfowl include the: shoveler, goldeneye, goosander, pochard, grey heron, pintail, tufted duck and mallard.</p><br>
<p>In December 2014, 1,389 cormorant were counted. The International Lake Constance Fishery Association (IBF) estimates the food requirements of the cormorants on Lake Constance at 150 tonnes of fish annually.</p><br>
<h4>=Overwintering=</h4><br>
<p>Lake Constance is an important overwintering area for around 250,000 birds. annually. Bird species such as the dunlin, the curlew and the lapwing overwinter at Lake Constance. In the middle of December 2014 there were 56,798 heron, 51,713 coot and 43,938 pochard. In November/December are about 10,000 to 15,000 red-crested pochard and 10,000 great crested grebe on Lake Constance.</p><br>
<h4>=Migration=</h4><br>
<p>During migration in late autumn there are also numerous loon on the lake (black-throated and red-throated loon, as well as a few great northern divers). Lake Constance is also very important as a staging post during the bird migration. Bird migration is often inconspicuous and most noticeable when there are special weather conditions that make day migration obvious. Only where there is a prolonged spell of widespread low-pressure is it common to observe the congestion of large groups of migratory birds. This can often be observed in autumn on the Eriskircher Ried on the northern shore of Lake Constance. This is where broad front migration converges on the lake and birds then try to move along the shore towards the northwest. The importance of Lake Constance as an important area for resting and overwintering is underlined by the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology&#39;s Radolfzell Bird Observatory (Vogelwarte Radolfzell), which is the bird ringing centre for the German states of Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Rhineland-Palatinate and the Saarland as well as for Austria, and which researches bird migration.</p><br>
<h4>Fish</h4><br>
<p>Around 45 species of fish live in Lake Constance. The annual haul from fishing is 1.5 million kg. Unusual species occurring here considering the location of the lake are the whitefish (Coregonus spec.) and the Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus). Fish that are important for the fishing industry are:</p><br>
<p>Bodenseefelchen (German: also Blaufelchen, Lat.: Coregonus wartmanni)</p><br>
<p>Sandfelchen (German: also Weißfelchen, Lat.: Coregonus arenicolus)</p><br>
<p>Gangfisch (Lat.: Coregonus macrophthalmus)</p><br>
<p>Lake Constance whitefish (German: Kilch, Lat.: Coregonus gutturosus)</p><br>
<p>Grayling (German: Äsche, Lat.: Thymallus thymallus)</p><br>
<p>Perch (German: Flussbarsch, Kretzer, Barschling, Swiss German: Egli, Lat.: Perca fluviatilis)</p><br>
<p>Bream (German: Brachse, Brasse, Lat.: Abramis brama)</p><br>
<p>Northern pike (German: Hecht (Lat.: Esox lucius)</p><br>
<p>Zander (Lat.: Sander lucioperca)</p><br>
<p>Burbot (German: Quappe, Trüsche, Lat.: Lota lota)</p><br>
<p>Eel (German: Aal, Lat.: Anguilla anguilla)</p><br>
<p>Bullhead (German: Groppe, Lat.: Cottus gobio)</p><br>
<p>Tench (German: Schleie, Lat.: Tinca tinca)</p><br>
<p>Wels catfish (German: Wels, Lat.: Silurus glanis)</p><br>
<p>Lake trout (German: Seeforelle, Lat.: Salmo trutta lacustris).</p><br>
<p>The Bodenseefelchen (Coregonus wartmanni), which was named after Lake Constance due to the great numbers found there, is often prepared whole or as a fillet, in the style of the miller&#39;s wife (nach Müllerin Art), in local fish restaurants in a similar way to other trout It is also often served smoked.</p><br>
<p>The endemic species, formerly found in Lake Constance, the Bodensee-Kilch (Coregonus gutturosus) and deepwater char (Salvelinus profundus) are now assumed to be extinct.</p><br>
<h4>Introduced species</h4><br>
<p>For many years non-native species have settled in the Lake Constance ecosystem and, in some cases, endangered or threatened native flora and fauna. At Lake Constance, non-native species have been increasing annually. Several have been transported from other waterbodies as blind passengers on the outside of boats, life jackets, anchor chains or ropes or diving gear. Others have immigrated from the Black Sea or the Danube since the opening of the Main-Danube Canal. Others have been deliberately introduced.</p><br>
<h4>=Well-known non-native species=</h4><br>
<p>Even the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is not a native fish. It was introduced into Lake Constance around 1880 for economic reasons to enhance the local fauna.</p><br>
<p>Among the foreign species of animal in Lake Constance are the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) which, since the 18th century, has spread from the Black Sea region across most of Europe and was carried into Lake Constance between 1960 and 1965. After a huge increase in numbers during the 1980s in the Rhine and large lakes, this species is now in retreat today. The zebra mussel causes problems because, among other things, it blocks water extraction pipes. In addition, the species can be a disaster for domestic shellfish, because it competes for their food. Today, according to the Institute for Lake Research (Institut für Seenforschung, ISF), the zebra mussel is also an important food for overwintering waterfowl. In fact, the number of overwinterers has more than doubled in around 30 years.</p><br>
<p>The killer shrimp (Dikerogammarus villosus) has spread since 2002 from two sections of shoreline near Hagnau and Immenstaad, over the whole Lake Überlingen (2004), the whole of the Obersee (2006) and almost the whole Lake Constance and Rheinsee shore (2007) aus. As its name implies, it is a voracious burglar of fish larvae and fish eggs.</p><br>
<p>The most recent example is the little opossum shrimp (Limnomysis benedeni), only six to eleven millimeters long, which was found in 2006 in the Vorarlberg region of Hard, and can now be found almost all over Lake Constance. It comes from the waters around the Black Sea. It was presumably first transported by ships up the Danube before it spread into the Rhine river system and entered Lake Constance. The opossum shrimp, which occurs in many places in shoals of several million in winter, are already an influential link in the food chain in Lake Constance. They consume dead animal and plant material as well as phytoplankton, but are also eaten by fish themselves.</p><br>
<p>Today, in western Lake Constance are found: the North American spinycheek crayfish (Orconectes limosus), which was introduced into European waters in the mid-19th century to increase the yield, occasionally the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis), and in the lake&#39;s tributaries, the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusulus). As these species of large crayfish are immune to crayfish plague, but spread the pathogen, they are a great danger to native species such as noble crayfish, white-clawed crayfish or stone crayfish. The animals are often undemanding, multiply rapidly and lead predatory lives, thus also posing a threat to various small species of fish. The ISF has been systematically researching the subject since 2003.</p><br>
<h3>Wrecks on the lake bed</h3><br>
<p>After a collision with the Stadt Zürich in 1864 the wreck of the Jura has lain on the lake bed at a depth of 45 metres off the Swiss shore. In the early 20th century four ships were sunk in the Obersee after being taken out of service: in 1931 the Baden, formerly the Kaiser Wilhelm, in 1932 the Helvetia, in 1933 the Säntis and in 1934 the Stadt Radolfzell. The hull of the burnt-out Friedrichshafen was scuttled in 1944 off the mouth of the Argen in 100 to 150 metres of water.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism, leisure and sports</h2><br>
<p>The tourism and leisure industry is an important factor for this region. Overnight stays reached 17,56m visitors in 2012 with an turnover of about 1.9bn Euros. The same amount comes from the 70 million daily visitors that visit Lake Constance each year.</p><br>
<p>This region is known for sightseeing, water-sports, winter-sports like Skiing, summer-sports like Swimming (sport), Sailing and recreation. It is also one of the few places where modern Zeppelin airships operate and 12-14 people can take a trip above the lake around various points of interests.</p><br>
<p>The lake and the region around it have a substantial touristic infrastructure as well as many attractions and points of interests. Important are especially cities like Konstanz, Überlingen, Meersburg, Friedrichshafen, Lindau and Bregenz as they are the big hubs for boating tourism. The main tourism attractions are places like Rhine Falls, one of the three biggest waterfalls in Europe, the Mainau Island and Reichenau Island (UNESCO world heritage), the pilgrimage church Birnau, castles and palaces like Salem Abbey, Meersburg Castle as well as another UNESCO world heritage site, the Pfahlbaumuseum Unteruhldingen (German for &#39;Stilt house museum).</p><br>
<p>In the east of the lake, the Alps are reaching almost to it thus allowing a great view over the lake. The Pfänderbahn goes from top of the mountain right down, next to the lake in Bregenz.</p><br>
<p>Biking around the lake is also possible on the 261 km long trail called "Bodensee-Radweg". It brings its visitors to the most interesting sites and goes around the whole lake. Nevertheless, various shortcuts via ferries allow shorter routes and the trail is suitable for all levels. Note: There is also a trail that goes by the name "Bodensee-Rundweg". This road was intended for pedestrians so biking is sometimes not suitable or allowed.</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, Lake Constance is the location for the annual Bregenzer Festspiele, a well known arts festival that also takes place on a floating stage in Bregenz. Opera and music performances generally tend to come from popular pieces and among contributors are top music bands like the Vienna Symphony Orchestra.</p><br>
<h2>Towns on the lake</h2><br>
<h3>Austria</h3><br>
<p>Hard</p><br>
<p>Hörbranz</p><br>
<p>Bregenz</p><br>
<p>Lochau</p><br>
<p>Höchst</p><br>
<p>Fussach</p><br>
<p>Gaissau</p><br>
<h3>Germany</h3><br>
<p>From the entry of the Rhine, on the northern or right shore:</p><br>
<p>On the Upper Lake (Obersee) and Überlinger See</p><br>
<p>Lindau (in Bavaria)</p><br>
<p>Wasserburg</p><br>
<p>Nonnenhorn</p><br>
<p>Kressbronn (in Baden-Württemberg)</p><br>
<p>Langenargen</p><br>
<p>Eriskirch</p><br>
<p>Friedrichshafen</p><br>
<p>Immenstaad</p><br>
<p>Hagnau</p><br>
<p>Stetten</p><br>
<p>Meersburg</p><br>
<p>Uhldingen-Mühlhofen (on Überlinger See)</p><br>
<p>Überlingen</p><br>
<p>Sipplingen</p><br>
<p>Bodman-Ludwigshafen</p><br>
<p>Konstanz with suburbs</p><br>
<p>Wallhausen</p><br>
<p>Dingelsdorf</p><br>
<p>Litzelstetten</p><br>
<p>On the lower lake (Untersee)</p><br>
<p>Reichenau (including the island with same name)</p><br>
<p>Allensbach (on the Gnadensee)</p><br>
<p>Radolfzell (on the Zellersee)</p><br>
<p>Moos</p><br>
<p>Gaienhofen</p><br>
<p>Öhningen</p><br>
<h3>Switzerland</h3><br>
<p>From the entry of the Rhine, on the southern or left shore:</p><br>
<p>On the Upper Lake (Obersee)</p><br>
<p>Altenrhein, St. Gallen</p><br>
<p>Rorschach, St. Gallen</p><br>
<p>Horn, Thurgau</p><br>
<p>Steinach, St. Gallen</p><br>
<p>Arbon, Thurgau (as all the following)</p><br>
<p>Frasnacht</p><br>
<p>Egnach</p><br>
<p>Romanshorn</p><br>
<p>Uttwil</p><br>
<p>Kesswil</p><br>
<p>Güttingen</p><br>
<p>Altnau</p><br>
<p>Landschlacht</p><br>
<p>Münsterlingen</p><br>
<p>Bottighofen</p><br>
<p>Kreuzlingen (and Konstanz, Germany)</p><br>
<p>On the Rhine</p><br>
<p>Gottlieben</p><br>
<p>On the Lower Lake (Untersee)</p><br>
<p>Ermatingen</p><br>
<p>Mannenbach</p><br>
<p>Berlingen</p><br>
<p>Steckborn</p><br>
<p>Mammern</p><br>
<p>Eschenz</p><br>
<p>Stein am Rhein, Schaffhausen</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<p>The lake was frozen in the years 1077 (?), 1326 (partial), 1378 (partial), 1435, 1465 (partial), 1477 (partial), 1491 (partial?), 1517 (partial), 1571 (partial), 1573, 1600 (partial), 1684, 1695, 1709 (partial), 1795, 1830, 1880 (partial), and 1963.</p><br>
<p>Approximately 1,000 t of fish were caught by 150 professional fishermen in 2001 which was below the previous ten year average of 1,200 t per year. The Lake Constance trout (Salmo trutta) was almost extinct in the 1980s due to pollution, but thanks to protective measures they have made a significant return. Lake Constance is the home of the critically endangered species of trout Salvelinus profundus, and formerly also the now extinct Lake Constance whitefish (Coregonus gutturosus).</p><br>
<p>The South Willem&#39;s Canal  is a canal in the southern Netherlands, providing a shortcut in river Meuse between the cities of Maastricht and &#39;s-Hertogenbosch. The canal was named after King William I of the Netherlands, with "South" added to avoid confusion with two other canals commissioned by and named after the King: the Willem&#39;s Canal near Zwolle and the North Willem&#39;s Canal in the province of Groningen.</p><br>
<p>King William ordered the planning of the canal, and construction started in 1823. The canal was completed in 1826 and named for the king. The 123 km-long canal runs through the Belgian province of Limburg, the Dutch province of Limburg and, for the largest part, through the Dutch province of North Brabant. At the time of the canal&#39;s construction, all of these regions were part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815&ndash;1830/39).</p><br>
<p>The canal created new possibilities for development of the poor towns on the sandy grounds of North Brabant, such as Helmond and Veghel and created an alternative traderoute for ships that did not want to sail the Meuse.</p><br>
<p>Nowadays the channel is being enlarged to make more room for ships with higher tonnage and therefore the development of larger industries.</p><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro  is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, and one of the world&#39;s earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Norte Chico. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro, the modern name for the site, has been variously interpreted as "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi, and as "Mound of Mohan" (where Mohan is Krishna). The citys original name is unknown. Based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the citys ancient name could have been Kukkutarma ("the city of the cockerel "). Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, rather than as a food source. Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. It is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 km from the town of Larkana. The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding flood, but subsequent flooding has since buried most of the ridge in silt deposits. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry.</p><br>
<h2>Historical context</h2><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE. It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in Bactria, with major urban centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning. When the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>Rediscovery and excavation</h2><br>
<p>The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, visited the site in 1919–20, identifying the Buddhist stupa (150–500 CE) known to be there and finding a flint scraper which convinced him of the sites antiquity. This led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar and Ernest Mackay. Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales. After 1965 excavations were banned due to weathering damage to the exposed structures, and the only projects allowed at the site since have been salvage excavations, surface surveys, and conservation projects. However, in the 1980s, German and Italian survey groups led by Dr. Michael Jansen and Dr. Maurizio Tosi used less invasive archeological techniques, such as architectural documentation, surface surveys, and localized probing, to gather further information about Mohenjo-daro. A dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistans National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and urban infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan. Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers a "weak" estimate of a peak population of around 40,000.</p><br>
<p>The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization. The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 m high – is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of more prestigious inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust), possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.</p><br>
<h3>Major buildings</h3><br>
<p>In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified one large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary". Certain wall-divisions in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grain from the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted the complete lack of evidence for grain at the "granary", which, he argued, might therefore be better termed a "Great Hall" of uncertain function. Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath. From a colonnaded courtyard, steps lead down to the brick-built pool, which was waterproofed by a lining of bitumen. The pool measures 12 m long, 7 m wide and 2.4 m deep. It may have been used for religious purification. Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex of buildings comprising 78 rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.</p><br>
<h3>Fortifications</h3><br>
<p>Mohenjo-daro had no series of city walls, but was fortified with guard towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa, it is postulated that Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, but the extent and functioning of an administrative center remains unclear.</p><br>
<h3>Flooding and rebuilding</h3><br>
<p>The city also had large platforms perhaps intended as defense against flooding. According to a theory first advanced by Wheeler, the city could have been flooded and silted over, perhaps six times, and later rebuilt in the same location.</p><br>
<h2>Notable artefacts</h2><br>
<p>Numerous objects found in excavation include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper jewellery, and children&#39;s toys. Many important objects from Mohenjo-daro are conserved at the National Museum of India in Delhi and the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi. In 1939, a representative collection of artefacts excavated at the site was transferred to the British Museum by the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.</p><br>
<h3>Dancing Girl</h3><br>
<p>A bronze statuette dubbed the "Dancing Girl", 10.5 cm high and about 4,500 years old, was found in HR area of Mohenjo-daro in 1926. In 1973, British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler described the item as his favorite statuette:"Shes about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. Theres nothing like her, I think, in the world."</p><br>
<p>John Marshall, another archeologist at Mohenjo-daro, described the figure as "a young girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture, and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs and feet." The archaeologist Gregory Possehl said of the statuette, "We may not be certain that she was a dancer, but she was good at what she did and she knew it". The statue led to two important discoveries about the civilization: first, that they knew metal blending, casting and other sophisticated methods of working with ore, and secondly that entertainment, especially dance, was part of the culture.</p><br>
<h3>Priest-King</h3><br>
<p>In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with unusually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-daro, archaeologists dubbed this dignified figure a "Priest-King." The sculpture is 17.5 cm tall, and shows a neatly bearded man with pierced earlobes and a fillet around his head, possibly all that is left of a once-elaborate hairstyle or head-dress; his hair is combed back. He wears an armband, and a cloak with drilled trefoil, single circle and double circle motifs, which show traces of red. His eyes might have originally been inlaid.</p><br>
<h3>Pashupati seal</h3><br>
<p>A seal discovered at the site bears the image of a seated, cross-legged and possibly ithyphallic figure surrounded by animals. The figure has been interpreted by some scholars as a yogi, and by others as a three-headed "proto-Shiva" as "Lord of Animals".</p><br>
<h3>Seven-stranded necklace</h3><br>
<p>Sir Mortimer Wheeler was especially fascinated with this artifact, which he believed to be at least 4,500 years old. The necklace has an S-shaped clasp with seven strands, each over 4 ft long, of bronze-metal bead-like nuggets which connect each arm of the "S" in filigree. Each strand has between 220 and 230 of the many-faceted nuggets, and there are about 1,600 nuggets in total. The necklace weighs about 250 grams in total, and is presently held in a private collection in India.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation and current state</h2><br>
<p>An initial agreement to fund restoration was agreed through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris on 27 May 1980. Contributions were made by a number of other countries to the project:</p><br>
<p>Preservation work for Mohenjo-daro was suspended in December 1996 after funding from the Pakistani government and international organizations stopped. Site conservation work resumed in April 1997, using funds made available by the UNESCO. The 20-year funding plan provided $10 million to protect the site and standing structures from flooding. In 2011, responsibility for the preservation of the site was transferred to the government of Sindh.</p><br>
<p>Currently the site is threatened by groundwater salinity and improper restoration. Many walls have already collapsed, while others are crumbling from the ground up. In 2012, Pakistani archaeologists warned that, without improved conservation measures, the site could disappear by 2030.</p><br>
<h3>2014 Sindh Festival</h3><br>
<p>The Mohenjo-daro site was further threatened in January 2014, when Bilawal Bhutto Zardari of the Pakistan Peoples Party chose the site for Sindh Festivals inauguration ceremony. This would have exposed the site to mechanical operations, including excavation and drilling. Farzand Masih, head of the Department of Archaeology at Punjab University warned that such activity was banned under the Antiquity Act, saying "You cannot even hammer a nail at an archaeological site." On 31 January 2014, a case was filed in the Sindh High Court to bar the Sindh government from continuing with the event.The festival was held by PPP at the historic site, despite all the protest by both national and international historians and educators.</p><br>
<p>Bering Island  is located off the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Bering Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>At 90 km long by 24 km wide, it is the largest and westernmost of the Commander Islands, with an area of 1,660 km&sup2;. Most of Bering island and several of the smaller islands in their entirety are now part of the Komandorsky Zapovednik nature preserve.</p><br>
<p>Known as the "hidden Jewel of the USA-Russia Maritime Boundary," Bering Island is treeless, desolate and experiences severe weather, including high winds, persistent fog and earthquakes. It had no year-round human residents until roughly 1826. Now, the village of Nikolskoye is home to 800 people, roughly three hundred of them identifying as Aleuts. The island&#39;s scant population is involved mostly in fishing.</p><br>
<p>4 km off Bering Island&#39;s northwest shore lies small Toporkov Island (Ostrov Toporkov) 55&deg;12&prime;9&Prime;N latitude, 165&deg;55&prime;59&Prime;E longitude. It is a round island with a diameter of 800 m.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1741 Commander Vitus Bering, sailing in Svyatoy Pyotr (St. Peter) for the Russian Navy, was shipwrecked and died of scurvy on Bering Island, along with 28 of his men. His ship had been destroyed by storms as they returned from an expedition that discovered mainland Alaska as well as the Aleutian Islands. The survivors under the command of the Swedish born lieutenant Sven Waxell were stranded on the island for 10 months, and managed to survive by killing seals and birds. They were able to build a boat out of their stranded wreck and managed to return to Petropavlovsk on the Kamchatka Peninsula in 1742 with sea otter furs and preserved meat from the newly discovered island.</p><br>
<p>Another of the expeditions survivors was Georg Wilhelm Steller, who eventually managed to convince his companions to eat seaweed (thus curing their scurvy). Steller explored Bering island and cataloged its fauna, including Stellers sea cow, which became extinct within three decades due to being hunted for its meat. The island&#39;s highest point (2,464 feet) is now named to honor the German-born naturalist. Upon returning to the Russian mainland, Steller then explored the Kamchatka peninsula and ultimately published De Bestiis Marinis (‘On the Beasts of the Sea’). However, his sympathies for the native peoples led to accusations that he was fomenting rebellion, so he was imprisoned and recalled to St. Petersburg, dying en route at age 37, although his diaries were later published to great acclaim and historic significance.</p><br>
<p>In 1743 Emilian Basov landed on Bering island to hunt sea otter, beginning the islands documented human habitation as well as ecological destruction. Promyshlenniki began to island-hop across the Bering Sea to the Aleutian islands and ultimately Alaska. In 1825 the Russian-American Company transferred Aleut families from Attu Island to Bering island to hunt, and another group of Aleut and mixed-race settlers followed the following year, thus establishing the first known permanent human habitation on Bering island. After Russia sold Alaska and the Aleutian islands to the United States in 1867, Bering island was placed under the Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky jurisdiction. The population grew from 110 people in 1827 (17 Russians, 45 Aleuts and 48 mixed race) to more than 300 people in 1879 (100 Aleuts on Copper island alone, along with 332 mixed-race and about 10% Russian or other nationalities). In 1990, after 170 years of separation and loss of cultural traditions, a planeload of Aleuts from Nikolskoye met another planeload of Alaskan Aleuts in Kamchatkas capital, and were surprised they could still communicate in the old Aleut language. Because of their isolation, like the now-Alaskan Pribilof Islands, the Aleuts have been used for studies of genetic drift.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>The area surrounding Bering Island is now a biosphere reserve, known for its diverse wildlife, and particularly marine mammals. The islands shores form a natural habitat for sea otters, and their population now appears stable, unlike on other Aleutian islands, and although they had been hunted to near extinction on the then-recently discovered Bering island by 1854. Steller sea lions continue to summer on Bering island, but the manatee-like Stellers sea cows, which fed on the kelp beds surrounding the island, were hunted to extinction by 1768.</p><br>
<p>Bering island has also long been famous for its seal rookeries, including northern fur seals, common seals and larga seals, although that population dropped to but 2 rookeries totaling 3,000 seals by 1913 (two years after the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911), particularly after the 20 year hunting lease of Hutchinson, Kohl and Company of San Francisco, which removed over 800,000 pelts.</p><br>
<p>Whale species sighted in the surrounding waters include sperm whales, orcas, several species of beaked whales, humpback, and right whales. Porpoises also frequent these waters.</p><br>
<p>Bering island also has numerous seabirds. UNESCO noted that 203 bird species have been sighted on the Commander Islands, including 58 nesting there. Puffins are abundant, although the flightless spectacled cormorant became extinct circa 1850. Two species of the Arctic foxes that tormented Bering&#39;s crew remain. Humans introduced reindeer, American mink and rats to the islands, with negative effects on native wildlife.</p><br>
<p>Tibidabo is a mountain overlooking Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. At 512 m, it is the tallest mountain in the Serra de Collserola. Rising sharply to the north-west, it has views over the city and the surrounding coastline.</p><br>
<p>The summit of the mountain is occupied by the Sagrat Cor church and adjacent Tibidabo Amusement Park. The Torre de Collserola telecommunications tower is a short walk away. All three are prominently visible from most of the city of Barcelona. Designed by Enric Sagnier, the church took 60 years to construct and is topped by a sculpture of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Josep Miret Llopart.</p><br>
<p>Tibidabo can be reached via the Tibidabo Funicular, which was the first of its kind in Spain, and by the Tramvia Blau or road. The Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona minibus service 111 connects it to Vallvidrera village and the upper station of the Vallvidrera funicular.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of name</h2><br>
<p>The name derives from the Latin Vulgate Bible verses:</p><br>
<p>"…et dixit illi haec tibi omnia dabo si cadens adoraveris me" – "And saith unto him, All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me" (Matthew 4:9)</p><br>
<p>"…et ait ei tibi dabo potestatem hanc universam et gloriam illorum quia mihi tradita sunt et cui volo do illa" – "All this power will I give thee, and the glory of them: for that is delivered unto me; and to whomsoever I will I give it" (Luke 4:6).</p><br>
<p>This phrase, meaning I will give to you, was said to Jesus by the devil as they looked down from an exceedingly high mountain upon all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them. The name of Barcelonas hill thus refers to the popular tradition that it was in fact the exceedingly high mountain itself. The phrase Tibi dabo forms part of the inscription in the central dome of St. Peters Basilica in Vatican City, although in that case it was drawn from Jesus&#39; words to St. Peter in.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>"...while the train journeyed through the bowels of the city to the foot of Mount Tibidabo, which presides over Barcelona. When I reemerged into the streets, it seemed as if I were discovering another place. Dawn was breaking, and a purple blade of light cut through the clouds, spraying its hue over the fronts of mansions and stately homes that bordered Avenida del Tibidabo. A blue tram was crawling lazily uphill in the mist."</p><br>
<p>"I thanked him for the information and was about to turn down the avenue when I looked up and saw Tibidabo Mountain awakening behind the clouds of gauze. Suddenly I felt like taking the funicular up the hill to visit the old amusement park crowning its top and wander among its merry-go-rounds and the eerie automaton halls..."</p><br>
<p>In an episode of Friends titled "The One with the Videotape", Joey, played by Matt Leblanc, shares a made-up story he uses as a pick-up line that is supposedly guaranteed to have successful results. Dubbed the "Magic Europe Story," it centers around backpacking through Mount Tibidabo in Barcelona:</p><br>
<p>"Years ago when I was backpacking through western Europe I was just outside Barcelona hiking in the foothills of Mount Tibidabo, I was at the end of this path and I came to a clearing, there was a very secluded lake and there were tall trees all around, it was dead silent and across the lake I saw a beautiful woman bathing herself but she was crying..."</p><br>
<p>After both Ross and Rachel, played by David Schwimmer and Jennifer Aniston respectively, learn about the story, they both use it, resulting in Ross and Rachel having sex with each other, leading to Rachel&#39;s pregnancy with Emma.</p><br>
<p>Montjuïc  is a hill in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Montjuïc is referred to as "Jewish Mountain" in mediaeval Latin and Catalan documents, and remains of a mediaeval Jewish graveyard have been found there. It has also previously been suggested that it is related to the Latin phrase Mons Jovicus (&#39;hill of Jove&#39;). A location of the same name is also found in the city of Girona. When written in a Spanish rather than Catalan context it is generally spelled Montjuich (this is old Catalan spelling before the orthographic reforms of Pompeu Fabra).</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Barcelona&#39;s Montjuïc is a broad shallow hill with a relatively flat top overlooking the harbour, to the southwest of the city centre. The eastern side of the hill is almost a sheer cliff, giving it a commanding view over the city&#39;s harbour immediately below. The top of the hill (a height of 184,8 m) was the site of several fortifications, the latest of which (the Castle of Montjuïc) remains today. The fortress largely dates from the 17th century, with 18th-century additions. In 1842, the garrison (loyal to the Madrid government) shelled parts of the city. It served as a prison, often holding political prisoners, until the time of General Franco. The castle was also the site of numerous executions. In 1897, an incident popularly known as Els processos de Montjuïc prompted the execution of anarchist supporters, which then led to a severe repression of the struggle for workers&#39; rights. On different occasions during the Spanish Civil War, both Nationalists and Republicans were executed there, each at the time when the site was held by their opponents. The Catalan nationalist leader Lluís Companys was also executed there in 1940, having been extradited to the Franco government by the Nazis.</p><br>
<h2>Developments</h2><br>
<p>Naturally wooded, the slopes of the Montjuïc were traditionally used to grow food and graze animals by the people of the neighbouring Ciutat Vella. In the 1890s, the forests were partially cleared, opening space for parklands. The site was selected to host the 1929 International Exposition (a World&#39;s Fair), for which the first large-scale construction on the hill began. The surviving buildings from this effort include the grand Palau Nacional, the Estadi Olímpic (the Olympic stadium), the ornate Font Màgica fountains, and a grand staircase leading up from the foot of Montjuïc at the south end of the Avinguda de la Reina Maria Cristina, past the Font Màgica and through the Plaça del Marquès de Foronda and the Plaça de les Cascades to the Palau Nacional. The Poble Espanyol, a "Spanish village" of different buildings built in different styles of Spanish architecture, also survives, located on the western side of the hill. Mies van der Rohe&#39;s German national pavilion was constructed at the foot of the hill, near the Plaça del Marquès de Foronda. It was demolished in 1930 but was rebuilt in 1988.</p><br>
<p>Also completed in 1929, the Olympic stadium was intended to host an anti-fascist alternative Olympics in 1936, in opposition to the 1936 Berlin Olympics. These plans were cancelled due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. The stadium served as the home for football team Espanyol, until the club left for a new stadium in Cornellà/El Prat upon its completion in 2008.</p><br>
<p>The roads in the slopes facing the city were once the Montjuïc circuit Formula One race track, hosting the Spanish Grand Prix on four occasions. However, a terrible accident in the 1975 race saw Rolf Stommelen&#39;s car crash into the stands, killing four people; as a result the Spanish Grand Prix never returned to Montjuïc circuit.</p><br>
<p>The Montjuïc was selected as the site for several of the venues of the 1992 Summer Olympics, centred on the Olympic stadium. Extensively refurbished and renamed the Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, the 65,000-seat stadium saw the opening and closing ceremonies and hosted the athletic events. Around it the Anella Olímpica (the "Olympic Ring") of sporting venues was built, including the Palau Sant Jordi indoor arena, the Institut Nacional d&#39;Educació Física de Catalunya, a centre of sports science; the Piscines Bernat Picornell and the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc, the venues for swimming and diving events respectively; and the striking telecommunications tower, designed by the architect Santiago Calatrava. Of the Piscines (swimming pools), the diving pool was selected as the setting for the "Slow" music video recorded in 2003 by Australian singer Kylie Minogue.</p><br>
<p>The ornate Palau Nacional houses the Museu Nacional d&#39;Art de Catalunya, an extensive showcase of Catalan painting and sculpture.</p><br>
<p>The top of the hill can be reached using the Funicular de Montjuïc, a funicular railway that operates as part of the Barcelona Metro, and then a gondola lift. On the eastern slope is the Miramar terminal of the Port Vell Aerial Tramway connecting Montjuïc with Barceloneta on the other side of Port Vell. Part of the slopes are covered with a well attended park and gardens. The hill is often used for amateur cycling.</p><br>
<h2>Prototype metre</h2><br>
<p>In June 1792 the French astronomers Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre François André Méchain set out to measure the meridian arc distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona, two cities lying on approximately the same longitude as each other and also the longitude through Paris. The fortress on Montjuïc was chosen as the reference point in Barcelona. After protracted negotiations (France and Spain were technically at war) Méchain made his measurements from the fortress on 16 March 1794.</p><br>
<p>Using this measurement and the latitudes of the two cities they could calculate the distance between the North Pole and the Equator in classical French units of length and hence produce the first prototype metre which was defined as being one ten millionth of that distance. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799.</p><br>
<h2>Also on the Montjuïc</h2><br>
<p>* Fundació Joan Miró, a modern art museum centring on a large collection of the works of Joan Miró.</p><br>
<p>* Montjuïc Cemetery (Cementiri del Sud-Oest), a cemetery containing many influential people, including Lluís Companys and his predecessor as President of Catalonia Francesc Macià, as well as artist Joan Miró, dancer Carmen Amaya and poet/priest Jacint Verdaguer. Numerous unmarked graves hold those executed in the fortress.</p><br>
<p>* The botanical gardens.</p><br>
<p>* The museum of ethnology</p><br>
<p>* The Catalan museum of archaeology (housed in the 1929 exhibition&#39;s palace of graphic arts)</p><br>
<p>* The Olympic and Sports Museum Joan Antoni Samaranch</p><br>
<h2>Musical tributes</h2><br>
<p>In 1936 the British composers Lennox Berkeley and Benjamin Britten visited a folk dance festival on the mountain while attending a music festival in Barcelona. They took down the melodies and the following year they jointly wrote a suite of four Catalan dances for orchestra, which they named Mont Juic.</p><br>
